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PL3234 > 8. Language & Communication > Flashcards

8. Language & Communication Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 main aspects of language?

A

Phonology (sounds)
Semantics (meaning)
Grammar (structure)
Pragmatics (use of language)

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2
Q

What is phonology?

A

A system of sounds including:
Phonemes (basic units of sound) & phonological rules
Rules about how we put phonemes together to form words and rules about proper intonation patterns for phrases and sentences

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3
Q

What is semantics?

A

The study of word meanings and word combinations

Definition of specific words

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4
Q

What is grammar and what does it consist of?

A

Structure of language. Consists of:
Morphology – smallest units of meaning in a language
Syntax – specifies how words are combined into sentences. Syntactical rules (eg. SVO agreement)

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5
Q

What is a function of grammar?

A

Allow us to vary word order so we can convey something in more than 1 way

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6
Q

What is pragmatics and what does it concern?

A

Rules for the use of language in particular contexts

Concerns effective and appropriate communication

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7
Q

What does the behaviorist principle of reinforcement propose about language development?

A

Posits that parents or other caregivers selectively reinforce the child’s babbling sounds that are most like adult speech. Showing approval and attention when baby utters specific sounds, encourages child to repeat them.

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8
Q

How does imitation and observational learning apply to language development?

A

Child picks up words, phrases, and sentences directly by imitating what he/she hears

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9
Q

What are 5 limitations of the learning view of language development?

A

1) Cannot account for the rapid speed of learning
2) Naturalistic studies of parent-child interaction don’t support
3) Cannot predict the huge variety of language utterances and specific responses just based on observing others’ specific utterances
4) Does not explain regular sequence of language development
5) Portrays child as playing a passive role in language development

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10
Q

Why is the learning view not able to account for the rapid speed of language learning?

A

Number of stimulus-response connections needed to explain language, is so enormous that a child can’t acquire them in a lifetime, not to mention a few short years.

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11
Q

How does naturalisitic studies of parent-child interaction fail to support reinforcement learning of language?

A

Mothers just as likely to reward their children for truthful but grammatically incorrect statements as they are to grammatically correct utterances. Reinforcement alone may not account for children’s grammar learning.

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12
Q

In what way does the learning view not support the regular sequence of language development in children?

A

Children across cultures seem to learn same types of grammatical rules in same order
Eg. learning active constructions before passive constructions. (“Sally baked the cake” vs “the cake was baked by Sally”)

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13
Q

What does the nativist view propose about language development in children?

A

Suggests that language acquisition unfolds as a result of the unique biological properties of humans
Argue that child is biologically predisposed to acquire language because language ability is an inherited species-specific characteristic

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14
Q

What is a critical period?

A

A time which a child is sensitive to a particular environmental stimulus that does not have the same effect on him when he encounters it before or after this period. Human beings learn language far more easily during a critical period of biological development

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15
Q

What is the critical period for language acquisition?

A

From infancy to puberty
Before puberty, child may achieve fluency of a native speaker in any language without special training, but after puberty, it is extremely difficult to learn a first language.

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16
Q

How do case studies support a critical period for language acquisition?

A

Feral children. 13 year old ‘Genie’ kept locked in a room by her father since she was 18 months. She never acquired normal language.
Young children whose speech is disrupted by brain injury often recover their language capacity rapidly and completely. If brain damage occurs after puberty, prognosis for recovery of language is poorer.

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17
Q

What are some limitations of the nativist view of language acquisition?

A

1) Language learning is a gradual process. Not completed as early as nativist accounts predict.
Specific aspects of grammar continue to develop in elementary school years and beyond
2) Difficult to account for many languages humans speak in the world
3) Ignores social context of language
4) Language milestones may not be acquired in a universal stage sequence

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18
Q

How do creole languages come about?

A

Often arises in a context in which people who speak different languages for some reason end up together in a single culture to form polyglot societies

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19
Q

What are the characteristics of Pidgin?

A

A simplified linguistic system created out of 2 Languages that suddenly come into contact with each other. Common language to communicate created by adults.
Lacks grammar complexity → highly individualistic, vary from speaker to speaker
Limited usefulness

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20
Q

What are the characteristics of Creole? (derived from Pidgin)

A

Children in these hybrid cultures speak creole
Children develop pidgin into a more complex linguistic system with single structure. Has richer grammatical structure.
Persist into succeeding generations in similar form. Suggests acquisition of new language happens quickly.
Interestingly, creole languages around the world are very similar in structure, regardless of contributing languages.

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21
Q

How does the similar structure of Croele languages around the world support the nativist perspective?

A

How could the children of these different cultural groups have evolved languages that resemble one another if they did not possess some sort of inner template of a universal grammar? Suggests that first-language acquisition is mediated by an innate device that provides child with specific grammatical model.

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22
Q

How does the case study of deaf children in nicaragua support the nativist theory?

A

Rudimentary sign language emerged among students.
The most complex components of speech originated in children under age 10. Adults cannot make use of these structures in either comprehension or production.
Suggests that the knowledge stemmed from innate abilities available to the child until child reaches critical period. Children were able to create and learn gestures that conveyed complex linguistic structures, but adults past the critical period cannot do so.
Provides strong evidence that humans are designed to learn language at an early age.

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23
Q

What does the interactionist view propose about language acquisition?

A

Recognises that language is learned in the context of spoken language but assuming as well that humans are in some way biologically prepared for learning to speak. Child’s active role complements role played by socialising agents.
Language acquisition is not separate from other aspects of development

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24
Q

How can parents/caregivers play a role in a child’s language development? (3)

A

Introduce objects to child
Speak about objects and events that are easily visible to the child
Monitor child’s apparent goals or intentions closely, commenting on them

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25
Q

How does playing non-verbal games facilitate language learning in a child?

A

Involve regular, repetitive and predictable behaviour → lay foundation for rules of language
Children learn structural features of spoken language & social skills (eg. turn-taking, give and take)

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26
Q

What are some characteristics of infant-directed speech? (motherese)

A

Simplified style of speech
Short, simple sentences that refer to concrete objects and events.
Often repeat important words and phrases.
Talk more slowly
Higher-pitched voices
Enunciate more clearly
Often end sentences with a rising intonation

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27
Q

What are 2 ways infant-directed speech can facilitate a child’s language acquisition?

A

Give them understanding of the rules of segmentation (ie. how speech is divided into words, phrases, and sentences)
Acoustic variations help highlight important words.
Emphasis on keywords with exaggerated pitch and louder voice, captures infants’ attention

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28
Q

Infant-directed speech may help gain infants’ attention, but does use of simplified speech actually facilitate child’s language learning?

A

No, simplified speech may not always be helpful.

Suggests that a level of complexity slightly ahead of children may maximise their learning

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29
Q

What are 2 techniques parents can use to facilitate language development in children?

A

Expansion

Recast

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30
Q

How does the technique of expansion facilitate language development in children?
“Child: daddy juice
Adult: daddy drinks juice”

A

Adult imitates and expands the child’s statement
Facilitates vocabulary expansion.
Parents likely to use this strategy after child has made grammatical error

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31
Q

How does the technique of recast facilitate language development in children?
“Child: Kitty eat
Adult: What is the kitty eating?”

A

Adult reframes the child’s incomplete sentence in a more complex grammatical form. This guides them toward more appropriate grammatical usage
Such children develop linguistically at a faster rate.
Children often imitate their parents’ expansions and recasts, especially when their own utterances are incorrect.

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32
Q

What do antecedents to language development refer to?

A

sounds, looks, movements, and gestures

babies use them to convey meaning before they begin to talk

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33
Q

How are smiles important to language development?

A

Smiles are particularly important in helping infants to learn how to coordinate vocalisations and translate expressions into effective communication.

34
Q

What are ‘Pseudo-conversations’ like?

A

Only adult is responsible for maintaining their flow
Babies have limited control over nature and timing of their responses.
Adults insert behaviour into infants’ cycles of responsiveness and unresponsiveness
May prompt baby by changing her expression, speaking again, or gently touching child

35
Q

At 6 months, what gestures and movements do children exhibit?

A

respond with smiles, gestures, movements, and sounds
Begin to use pointing gesture to guide others’ attention to objects. Allow them to learn names for objects that interest them.

36
Q

At what age can an infant follow the point of another person?

A 
12 months (age 1) 
attempts to understand the thinking, intentions and action of another person. signals shared attention.
37
Q

What is a protodeclarative action?

A

When a preverbal infants uses a gesture to call an object to someone’s attention

38
Q

What is a protoimperative action?

A

When babies can use gestures to get another person to do something for them

39
Q

At what age do children start combining words and gestures for more effective communication? How so?

A

Age 3. They begin to realise that gestures and language can be part of the same message, and require an integrated response. Gestures complement and sometimes add meaning to speech

40
Q

Why is pointing an important developmental milestone.

A

Signals shared attention on objects
One of the building blocks of social interaction because it establishes a ‘shared ground’ between people, and a joint system for representing the world and establishing meaning (ie. language)
“puzzle” and “tidy-up” game

41
Q

What are 3 evidences that suggest that receptive language skills emerge early?

A

1) Babies attend selectively to certain features in others’ speech
2) Prefer listening to speech or vocal music than instrumental music or other rhythmic sounds
3) Before birth, can distinguish mother’s voice and stranger’s voice

42
Q

Describe one experiment to show that infants can categorise consonants. (Phoneme boundary effect)

A

5 month olds were tested.
Group 1: listened to 60 repetitions of ‘bah’, followed 10 repetitions of ‘gah’
Group 2: listened to 60 repetitions of ‘gah’, followed 10 repetitions of ‘bah’
Group 3: listened to only 70 repetitions of ‘bah’
Babies in group 1 & 2 showed marked heart-rate response when the experimenters suddenly presented the new consonant sound. Evidence that the infants perceived the change. Can also discriminate /b/ & /p/

43
Q

What is the implication of this ability to discriminate between different consonants?

A

Suggest that infants are born with some innate mechanism for perceiving oral language

44
Q

What is one evidence to show that innate abilities interact with experience for language-learning? (hint: foreign vs native language)

A

infants can initially distinguish speech sounds unique to foreign languages but they lose this ability over time due to lack of exposure. Study found that infants of English-speaking parents could distinguish between sounds that are unique to Swedish only until the age of 6 months

45
Q

At what age can infants segment fluent speech and recognise distinct words in ongoing speech?

A

6-12 months - Can make distinctions that indicate word boundaries in flow of speech.
Use variety of cues to help define the boundaries of words.
Can detect new words in artificial language

46
Q

What is a significance of crying?

A

Crying is one of the infant’s earliest means of communicating needs to caregivers. Crying often leads to a response from the caregiver

47
Q

What are the 3 different types of crying?

A

Basic, angry, pain

48
Q

Describe the basic pattern of crying.

A

Starts arrhythmically and at low intensity
Gradually becomes louder and more rhythmic
Sequence is cry-rest-inhale-rest
Linked to hunger etc.

49
Q

Describe the angry pattern of crying.

A

Segments of crying, resting and inhaling vary at length
Crying segments are longer
Possible cause – removing a pacifier or toy

50
Q

Describe the pain pattern of crying.

A

Sudden in onset, loud from start
Made up of long cry followed by a long silence that includes holding the breath and then by a series of short, gasping inhalations
Causes – discomfort from soiled diaper, stomachache

51
Q

How does the significance of crying change over time?

A

Early months – physiology, hunger, hiccups, digestive problems
3-4 months – increasingly related to baby’s psychological needs (eg. wanting attention)

52
Q

How is crying and intervention an opportunity for social interaction?

A

Caregiver is rewarded in 2 ways –
Crying stops
Caregiver and child engage in mutually enjoyable exchange

53
Q

What is the four-stage sequence in the production of sounds in 1st year?

A

1) crying
2) cooing
3) babbling
4) patterned speech

54
Q

How does babbling support the nativist theory?

A

Kinds of sounds made at each of the first 3 stages quite similar across different languages
Eg. chinese, american, and ethiopian babies all babble similar consonant-vowel combinations even though they are exposed to different phonemes in their native languages
Even early babbling of deaf babies sounds similar to babbling of babies who can hear
Suggest a ‘unitary language capacity’ underlies human signed and spoken language acquisition. Suggest that pattern of development is a function of maturational changes in vocal structures and in parts of the brain that control sound production

55
Q

At what age does cultural differences in prespeech sounds (eg. babbling) begin to emerge?

A

around 9 months

56
Q

What is the naming explosion?

A

Describes pattern of vocabulary acquisition that occurs in bursts. Rapid increase in vocabulary that children show at about age 1.5 and lasts over the first 5 years.

57
Q

What does the naming explosion in vocabulary highlight?

A

highlights the human capacity for language and communication.

58
Q

The word-object constraint is an innate word-learning principle. Describe it.

A

Involves assumption that a new word refers to the entire object and not to one of its parts or properties

59
Q

What does the principle of Novel Name-Nameless Category (N3C) suggest?

A

states that upon hearing a novel label, infants assume it labels a novel object over a familiar one.
Eg. researcher placed 4 objects in front of a 28 month old. 3 objects were familiar, 1 was unfamiliar. Experimenter asked for the glorp. Children selected the unnamed object as the referent for glorp.

60
Q

In what ways does the ECM emphasise social context in word learning?

A

Social class, language environment, and children’s vocabulary highly correlated. Parents can influence vocabulary growth.

61
Q

How does dependence on language cues change as child grows older?

A

younger children tend to rely more on perceptual similarity. They won’t accept a common label for 2 very different looking objects.
Older children rely more on social and linguistic cues

62
Q

What kind of words are learnt first?

A

Naming/object words – 65%
Action words – 14%
Research finds that nouns are learned more easily than verbs

63
Q

Why is it that nouns seem to be learned more easily than verbs?

A

To learn object words, children must match objects with their appropriate linguistic referents
To learn action words (verbs), children must also form an understanding of the connections between objects and actions. However, some action words are learned more readily than others. Children are better at learning action words for things they can actually do themselves. (eg. learn ‘walk’ faster than ‘skip’)

64
Q

Describe the mutual exclusivity bias in relation to verb learning principles. (Similar to N3C in noun-learning principle)

A

The notion that children assumed a novel label applied to a novel action. When children were asked to ‘’Look at the person glorping”, they were more likely to look at the novel action.

65
Q

What are 2 types of errors in children’s early word use?

A

Overextension – Using a single word to refer to many similar things
Underextension (less common) – Using a single word in a highly restricted and individualistic way

66
Q

What are the 3 themes of overextension?

A

Categorical – Children using one word within a category for another closely related word (Eg. use the name of one colour for another)
Perceptual similarity – Eg. call all round objects balls
Relationship – Eg. use the word doll for an empty crib where the doll should be

67
Q

What is a holophrase?

A

single words that appear to represent a complete thought

68
Q

What is telegraphic speech?

A

Speech used by 1.5-2 year olds by putting 2 words together. Include only crucial words needed to convey speaker’s intent
Generally consist of nouns, verbs, adjectives. Tend to omit articles and preposition. Speech is creative and not merely a copy of adult language

69
Q

Why do early utterances tend to be similar in structure and meaning?

A

Children around the world tend to have encounters with similar kinds of basic situations in life
Their language learning is also tied to their cognitive development. Thus, across cultures, children express similar relations between objects and events

70
Q

What are the 4 phases in learning grammatical rules?

A

1) try but fail
2) inefficient learning – Succeed in memorising some irregular verbs (eg. broke, went) but do not yet acquire the grammatical rule
3) Learn grammatical rules that can be used with new and familiar words. (but tend to over apply)
4) recognising when to apply and when NOT to apply rules

71
Q

What is overregularisation of grammatical rules?

A

When children first learn a language, they ignore irregularities and rigidly apply the rules they learn. Phenomena is found across cultures and different language groups

72
Q

What is a possible explanation for overregularisation?

A

Not really a problem with language development but rather memory development. Learning complexities and rules of language places great demands on memory.

73
Q

What is metalinguistic awareness?

A

Refers to the understanding that language is a rule-bound system of communicating. Includes the ability to:
Talk about various properties and uses of language
Monitor language as it is used

74
Q

What is phonological awareness? What is an example of it?

A

The specific aspect of metalinguistic awareness related to sounds of a language. Rhyming. Children delight in discovering that words can rhyme and learning how to make this happen. Reflects phonological awareness and can help create social connections and enjoyment

75
Q

What are 2 ways bilingualism can occur?

A

Learning two languages simultaneously (eg. one parent speaks one language and another parent speaks a second language to the child)
Learning two languages sequentially (eg. one language spoken at home when child is young, and a second language is acquired when child goes to school)

76
Q

How do bilingual children’s individual and combined vocabulary compare to that of monolingual children?

A

Although a bilingual child may have individual language vocabulary smaller than a monolingual child’s vocabulary, total production vocabulary (vocab in both languages combined) may be equal to the monolingual child’s production vocabulary.

77
Q

What is the difference in brain involvement for simultaneous vs sequential learning of 2 languages?

A

Simultaneous learning – both languages share the same region in the Broca’s area
Sequential learning – Brain region is divided, with a distinct area reserved for the second language

78
Q

What are the 3 possible benefits of bilingualism?

A

Bilingual children are more cognitively advanced than monolingual children (more flexible in their thinking , better attentional control/inhibition)
Facilitates development of metalinguistic awareness
Better social behaviour

79
Q

What is the difference between productive and receptive language?

A

Productive language: related to production of speech

Receptive language: understanding the speech of others

80
Q

What is the language acquisition device (LAD) as advocated by Noam Chomsky?

A

Children are born with an innate mental structure that guides their acquisition of language and in particular, grammar.

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