12. Parents, Peers, and Social Relationships Flashcards
What are 3 characteristics of the family system?
1) Heavy interdependence
2) Family functions in larger societal context
3) Dynamic nature of family relationships (changes over time)
Why is a family heavily interdependent?
Parents has important influence on child’s development, particularly in the early years
Children also influence parents, and play an active role in their own socialisation
Changes in family structure, or changes in a single member’s behaviour can affect the functioning of the entire system
The ecological systems perspective proposes relationships between? (2)
1) child and environmental systems (eg. school, family)
2) among systems themselves
What does it mean when families attain equilibrium (homeostasis) in their functioning?
They become resistant to forces of change and this can prevent family members from recognising problems, and blame all family problems on one child.
What kind of boundaries do well-functioning families have compared to poor-functioning families?
Well-functioning families have permeable boundaries that allow members to maintain satisfying relationships both within and outside the family itself.
Too rigidly bounded families may have difficulty disengaging appropriately from the family. Few positive community contacts and social support, may be more likely to perceive their children negatively and be punitive & inconsistent with them.
Note: When boundaries are too permeable, they may be vulnerable to disruptions by external forces
What are the 2 learning principles parents rely on to teach children social rules and roles?
Reinforcement – Praise or discipline children according to whether their children conform or violate rules for appropriate standards of behaviour.
Modelling – parents model behaviors they want their children to adopt
Reinforcement and punishment is used consciously while observational learning may occur by chance
What are the 2 dimensions of parenting patterns?
Emotionality
Control
What are the two extremes of emotionality?
Warm, responsive and child centred Rejecting, unresponsive, and essentially uninvolved.
Describe a parent-child relationship that is high on emotionality. (4)
1) Child will want to maintain parents’ approval, and distressed at any prospect of losing the parent’s love
2) Parental responsiveness to child’s needs
3) Children feel good about themselves, dispelling anxiety, building a sense of security and self-esteem
4) Child more likely to learn and accept and internalise parental standards
Describe a parent-child relationship that is low on emotionality. (4)
1) More focused on their own needs and wishes
2) Threat of withdrawal of love is unlikely to be an effective mechanism for socialisation
3) High levels of tension and anxiety & frequent physical punishment
4) Difficult for child to learn social rules
What are the 2 types of control used by parents?
1) Behavioural control
2) Psychological control
What does behavioral control entail?
Involves setting reasonable rules and parental use of suggestions, reasoning, and possible alternative courses of action, as well as monitoring of children’s activities.
What does psychological control entail?
Use of emotion-directed tactics (eg. guilt or shame induction, withdrawal of love or affection, ignoring or discounting a child’s feelings)
Such control often leads to low self-esteem, higher anxiety and possibly depression
What are the 4 types of parenting styles?
1) Authoritative
2) Authoritarian
3) Permissive
4) Uninvolved
What kind of children do authoritative parents tend to produce?
Correlated with energetic-friendly children
Positive emotional, social, and cognitive development
Higher self-esteem, adaptability, competence, internalized control, popularity with peers, low levels of antisocial behaviour
Describe the nature of authoritative parenting.
Not intrusive and permitted children considerable freedom
Moderate restrictiveness (reasonable limits)
Impose restrictions in areas in which they have knowledge/insight, firm with child
Expect appropriately mature behaviour from child
Responsive and attentive to child’s needs
What kind of children do authoritarian parents tend to produce?
Correlated with conflicted irritable children, who tend to be fearful, moody and vulnerable to stressors.
Children have little control over their environment and receive little gratification (feel trapped and angry)
Fearful of asserting themselves in a hostile environment
Poor academic and intellectual performance
Unfriendly and lack self-confidence, initiative and leadership in their relations with peers
Briefly describe authoritarian parenting.
Parents are rigid, power-assertive, harsh, and unresponsive to child’s needs
What kind of children do permissive parents produce?
Correlated with children’s impulsive-aggressive behaviour
Excessive lax and inconsistent discipline and encouragement of children’s free expression of impulses were associated with development of uncontrolled, non-compliant and aggressive behaviour in children.
What are characteristics of uninvolved parenting?
Parents who were indifferent or actively neglecting their children
“Motivated to do whatever is necessary to minimize the costs in time and effort of interacting with the child”
Parent-centred rather than child-centred
Focus on own needs over and above those of the child
What are 3 criticisms of the parenting style model?
1) Not establish how the components of each style contribute to their effectiveness in terms of children’s development
2) Neglect consideration of child’s temperament and behaviour.
3) Cultural and socioeconomic considerations (Authoritarian parenting and Asian cultures.) Must consider norms and values prevalent in child’s environment
How does the way parents manage their conflict with each other affect children?
Handle disagreements hostilely or aggressively → children tend to display aggressive behaviours
Fathers with angry and withdrawn style of managing disputes → greater likelihood of depression in children
What are the 2 types of pathways marital conflict can have on children?
1) direct pathway - child as actual witness to arguments. the more the arguments were about what a child has said or done,the more likely the child will show distress, shame, and self-blame
2) indirect pathway - Marital difficulties cause parents to change childrearing practices in unfamiliar ways
Children of which gender is more likely to suffer the effects of family disharmony? And why?
Boys more likely to be directly exposed to parental bickering and physical abuse than girls. Suggests parents more protective of daughters than sons, or boys behaviour may lead to greater need for discipline or greater parental disagreement
The effect of child temperament on parental relationship is moderated by ______.
strength of the original parental relationship.
Couples with stronger relationships are more able to handle such pressures
What are some characteristics of first-borns?
studious, conscientious, serious
adult-oriented, helpful, self-controlled
Greater expectations of first-borns may result in certain undesirable characteristics, what are they?
Tend to be more fearful and anxious than siblings
Experience more guilt
Face more difficulty coping alone with stressful situations
Have less self-confidence
What is the difference between first-borns and only children?
Exposed to same high level of parental demands as first-borns
But does not have to adapt to displacement and competition with siblings
Less anxious, show more personal control, maturity and leadership
What are some things expected from the eldest child?
Assume some responsibility for younger siblings
Function as tutors or supervisors of younger siblings behaviour during social interactions
Act as gatekeepers who extend or limit siblings’ opportunities to interact with other children outside the family
How do oldest children differ from their siblings in terms of social learning?
Eldest children focus on parents as main sources of social learning, while younger children use both parents and older siblings as models and teachers.
When introducing a new sibling to the family, what are some ways parents can reduce sibling rivalry & jealousy?
1) mother can continue to be responsive to older child’s needs and helps the child understand feelings of the younger child
2) Father can become more involved with first-born
3) Parents can prepare their children for the arrival of a new sibling
What if Theory of Mind?
The ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others and to understand that people have beliefs, desires, and thoughts that are different from their own.
