14. Morality & Altruism

Question 1

What does socialisation of moral development entail?

Answer 1

Entails communicating ethical standards of a community to the child, shaping the practice of ‘good’ behaviour.

Question 2

Why is socialisation of morals to a child important? (2)

Answer 2

1) Vital for a well-functioning society

2) Maintaining good relationships between individuals

Question 3

To understand morality, the child needs to understand:

Answer 3

1) what the rules are
2) how they are justified
3) when they should be applied
4) people have conflicting perspectives on an issue which sometimes cannot be easily resolved

Question 4

Is behaviour consistent with moral understanding?

Answer 4

No, not necessarily. Moral judgement and moral behaviour is often unrrelataed, especially in young children.

Question 5

What are the 3 basic aspects of morality?

Answer 5

1) cognitive - knowledge of ethical rules and judgements of ‘correctness’ of actions
2) behavioural - refers to people’s actual behaviour in situations concerning ethics
3) emotional - people’s feelings about situations concerning moral and ethical decisions

Question 6

What did Piaget argue about morality?

Answer 6

1) moral development was an issue of understanding moral rules
2) emphasised processes and principles of cognitive growth
3) emphasised importance of child’s social relations

Question 7

What did Kohlberg argue about morality?

Answer 7

Similar to Piaget.

• understanding moral rules
• moral development was underpinned only by cognitive processes, not social relations

Question 8

What are the 3 stages of developing moral judgement as proposed by Piaget?

Answer 8

1) Premoral stage (til 5)
2) Moral realism (6-10)
3) Morality of reciprocity (11 onwards)
Children’s moral concepts will evolve in the 3 stages in unvarying sequence.

Question 9

What were Piaget’s methods of studying moral development in children?

Answer 9

• study how children understand and grasp rules of a game. Argued that this is similar to understanding moral rules.
• ask children to make and justify their moral decisions through moral vignettes (short stories)

Question 10

Briefly describe the premoral stage of developing moral judgement.

Answer 10

Lack of concern and awareness of rules

Question 11

Briefly describe the moral realism stage of developing moral judgement. (4)

Answer 11

• great concern and respect for rules
• rules come from authority figures (one-way street)
• rules are rigid and inflexible
• consequences of an action and reaction of authority figures are key in deciding if an act was wrong. don’t consider person’s intentions. consequence of egocentric thinking (cannot perceive situations from another’s perspective)

Question 12

Briefly describe the morality of reciprocity stage of developing moral judgement. (4)

Answer 12

• understand that rules can be changed, but only if everybody agrees to it
• obedience to authority is neither necessary nor always desirable
• shift to peer-group as relevant concern in moral decisions. Peer-solidarity and autonomous morality (a belief in mutual respect for others)
• equalitarianism: equal justice for all.

Question 13

What is a limitation of Piaget’s theory?

Answer 13

Argued that Piaget underestimated the cognitive capacities of children due to methodological flaws. 6 year olds can consider an actor’s intentions when the situation is described in a way they can comprehend.
When stories presented by videotape rather than orally, the younger children responded to the actor’s’ intentions just like the older children.

Question 14

How did Kohlberg’s theory build on Piaget’s theory of moral development? (2)

Answer 14

1) refined and expanded stages

2) extended age period covered

Question 15

How did Kohlberg’s view differ from Piaget’s view?

Answer 15

unlike Piaget, Kohlberg did not believe that moral judgements and development were closely connected to children’s involvement in social relations.

Question 16

What are the 3 levels of morality as proposed by Kohlberg?

Answer 16

Preconventional
Conventional: Conventional rules and conformity.
Postconventional: Self-accepted moral principles

Question 17

Describe stage 1 of Kohlberg’s Moral Development theory.

Answer 17

Obedience and punishment orientation

child defers to figures of authority to avoid punishment

Question 18

Describe stage 2 of Kohlberg’s Moral Development theory.

Answer 18

Naive hedonistic and instrumental orientation
Child only conforms to gain rewards.
Sharing and reciprocity is manipulating and self-serving.

Question 19

Describe stage 3 of Kohlberg’s Moral Development theory.

Answer 19

Good boy morality. Child concerned with maintain approval and good relations with others. Although the child is still basing judgements on others’ responses, he is primarily concerned with their approval and disapproval.

Question 20

Describe stage 4 of Kohlberg’s Moral development theory.

Answer 20

Person blindly accepts social conventions and rules and believes that if society accepts these rules, they should be maintained to avoid censure.
Now conforms not just to other individuals’ standards but to social order.

Question 21

Describe stage 5 of Kohlberg’s Moral development theory.

Answer 21

Morality of contract (social contract) & democratically accepted law. Based on agreement among individuals to conform to certain norms that seem necessary to maintain social order. But rules can be modified when people discuss and agree to alternatives.

Question 22

Describe stage 6 of Kohlberg’s Moral development theory.

Answer 22

Morality of individual principles and conscience. People conform both to social standards and to internalised ideals. Intent is to avoid guilt and self-condemnation rather than criticism by others. Base their decisions on abstract principles involving justice, compassion, and equality.

Question 23

What did Kohlberg argue about the sequence of his moral development theory?

Answer 23

Sequence is invariant

Once a person attains a higher level, will not regress and go back to earlier stages.

Question 24

What is a criticism of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development?

Answer 24

Gender bias. Failed to account for possible differences in moral orientations between males and females. Suggested that ‘goodness’ of women are those that mark them as deficient in moral development. Most women’s moral judgements rated at stage 3 where person is motivated primarily to maintain the goodwill and approval of others. Argued that women take a caring and interpersonal approach to moral judgements, while men emphasise more abstract concepts such as individual rights and principles of justice.

Question 25

What possible cultural differences in pattern of moral development are there?

Answer 25

In some societies people place community obligations over individual rights

Question 26

How do children learn to distinguish moral and social transgressions?

Answer 26

learn from parents, teachers, and peers
Observe a connection between acts and their consequences. Moral transgressions associated with worse consequences than social transgressions. Moral transgressions focus on consequences of the action on others’ rights and welfare. Social transgressions focus on the disorder created by the act itself.

Question 27

What is a criticism between Tushiel’s view of the distinction between moral and social transgressions?

Answer 27

Moral judgements are almost always intermeshed with social, historical, and other contextual factors, suggesting that a binary morality-convention distinction is too simplistic.

Question 28

What is the 4 step process involved in executing a moral action?

Answer 28

1) Child interprets effect of his/her action on others’ welfare
2) Child figures out the ideal moral course of action
3) Child decides what to do
4) Child actually performs the action

Question 29

What is self-regulation?

Answer 29

The ability to control behaviour on their own without reminders from others

Question 30

What does the self-regulation aspect of moral development entail?

Answer 30

Being able to inhibit or direct action to conforming to moral rules

Question 31

What are the 3 phases of developing self-regulation?

Answer 31

1) Control phase
2) Self-Control phase
3) Sel-regulation phase

Question 32

Describe the control phase of self regulation.

Answer 32

Child only acts upon demands and reminders from parents or caregivers. Child is highly dependent on caregiver for reminder signals about acceptable behaviors.

Question 33

Describe the self-control phase of self-regulation.

Answer 33

Child gains ability to comply with expectations in absence of reminders.
Possibly due to development of representational thinking and recall memory.
Develop strategies to delay self-gratification and direct their behaviour.

Question 34

Describe the self-regulation phase of Kopp’s model.

Answer 34

Children internalise their parents’ values and rules
Make conscious efforts to control their own behaviour
Have a stronger sense of ‘moral self’

Question 35

How can parents and caregivers promote self-control in children?

Answer 35

• consistent and carefully timed punishment
• provide a rationale for compliance
• shift control strategies from physical to verbal ones when children grow older. enhances child’s abilities to use verbally based control strategies.

Question 36

What factor can influence people’s tendency for forgiveness towards a moral transgression?

Answer 36

People tend to be more forgiving of a moral transgression when it concerns a personal issue than when they are making judgements of behaviour of others (ie. in 3rd person)

Question 37

What does the social intuitionist model argue about moral reasoning and behaviour?

Answer 37

Argues that morals are often affected by social processes, and underpinned by emotional considerations. While we may use reason to explain our moral judgements, judgements themselves may stem from more automatic, basic, even biological processes

Question 38

What is prosocial behaviour?

Answer 38

Refers to behaviour intended to benefit other people

May be motivated by egoistic, practical, or other-oriented concerns

Question 39

What is altruism? How does it differ from prosocial behaviour.

Answer 39

Altruistic behaviour is also designed to help others
But not motivated by self-interest. Distinguishes from prosocial behaviour in its willingness to help another without any thought of compensation.
Motivated by internalised values and self-rewards rather than expectation of concrete or social rewards.

Question 40

Describe infants’ prosocial behaviour at 10-12 months.

Answer 40

Cry in response to another child’s distress, but makes little effort to approach or help.

Question 41

Describe infants’ prosocial behaviour at 13-14 months.

Answer 41

Attempts to approach and comfort child in distress

Offer general help not specific to source of distress

Question 42

Describe infants’ prosocial behaviour at 18 months.

Answer 42

Offer specific kinds of help to distressed person.

Question 43

Describe the range of an infant’s prosocial behaviour at age 2. (5)

Answer 43

1) Verbal advice
2) Indirect helping
3) Sharing
4) Distraction
5) Protection

Question 44

Why are children more likely to show prosocial behaviours as they grow older?

Answer 44

learn to detect other people’s emotional cues and realise they need help
cognitive maturation - ability to understand the self is associated with empathy, perspective taking

Question 45

Describe gender differences in prosocial behaviour.

Answer 45

Girls tend to be more empathic than boys, especially as they grow older. But gender influences vary depending on the type of prosocial behaviour

Question 46

What are the possible reasons for gender differences in prosocial behaviour? (3)

Answer 46

1) methods of data collection - more pronounced when based on self-report by parents, peers and teachers than in observational techniques
2) parental expectations - expect more prosocial behaviour from girls.
3) Cultural stereotypes - cultural norms of what prosocial behaviour each gender should exhibit.

Question 47

Describe the biological perspective in explaining to prosocial development.

Answer 47

Argues that humans are biologically predisposed to respond with empathy and show prosocial behaviour because being part of a group provides additional protection and support, increasing chances of survival.
Twin studies suggest genetic basis for individual differences in prosocial behaviour, which becomes more important over time.

Question 48

How does infants’ temperament play a role in their prosocial development?

Answer 48

More inhibited infants get more upset at other infants’ distress. Children who can better regulate their emotions are more likely to engage in comforting beahviour.

Question 49

How can parent-child relationships affect a child’s prosocial development?

Answer 49

1) children show more prosocial behaviour when mothers are more senstive to their emotions and listen to them when thety feel anxious or upset.
2) mothers talking about their emotions and explain their feelings may encourage a child’s prosocial behaviour

Question 50

How can parenting styles influence a child’s prosocial development?

Answer 50

parents who use power-assertive techniques and little reasoning and warmth tend to have less altruistic children.
democratic parenting linked to more prosocial behaviour

Question 51

How does experience play a role in a child’s prosocial behaviour?

Answer 51

children with more opportunities to engage in prosocial actions develop more prosocial attitudes.

Question 52

How do peers play a role in a child’s prosocial behaviour?

Answer 52

Prosocial segregation - highly prosocial children tend to play together, and vice versa. Less prosocial children have fewer chances to learn prosocial practices from highly prosocial children.

Question 53

What cultures tend to produce more altrustic children?

Answer 53

Cultures that stress communal values such as asian collectivistic cultures. They stress prosocial and cooperative values.

Question 54

How can parents teach and encourage prosocial behaviour?

Answer 54

parents should explain to the child the harmful consequences of his/her behaviour to the victim. Mothers with stronger emotional overtones were more effective. This helps make stronger connections between the child’s behaviour and the victim’s emotional states.

Question 55

How does children’s prosocial reasoning evolve over time? (3 steps)

Answer 55

hedonisitic reasoning - engage in prosocial behaviours on basis of material reward
needs-oriented reasoning - basic concern for the needs of others
empathic reasoning - requires cognitive reflection. increases with age.