3. Research Methods

Question 1

What are the 2 main nature of research methods?

Answer 1

quantitative and qualitative

Question 2

Choosing a research methods depends on 2 things, what are they?

Answer 2

1) researcher’s theoretical orientation
2) topic/phenomenon understudy
- new topic: exploratory, qualitative methods on small sample. Build a theory/understanding.
- established topic: experimental methods should establish clearer connections between cause & effect

Question 3

What is the scientific method?

Answer 3

Formulate hypotheses based on a theory. Use measurable and replicable techniques to collect, study, and analyse data to test hypotheses and make inferences about its usefulness.

Question 4

What is an issue with data collection in children?

Answer 4

Task/question may be understood differently by children and adults. Researchers should be sensitive to context of study and a child’s likely interpretation of testing situation.

Question 5

What are 3 methods to collect data from children?

Answer 5

1) Ask children about themselves
2) Ask people who are close to these children (eg. caregivers)
3) Observe children directly

Question 6

What is self-report?

Answer 6

Information that a person provides about himself, typically by answering a set of questions devised by a researcher.

Question 7

What are 3 limitations of self-report for children?

Answer 7

Less attentive
Slower to respond
Have more trouble understanding the questions

Question 8

What are 2 advantages of collecting data from people close to children? (eg. caregivers)

Answer 8

Based on many observations made over time in a variety of situations
Parents/siblings’ perceptions, expectations, beliefs, and interpretations of events and behaviour reveal the influence of family dynamics on the child.

Question 9

What are 3 limitations of collecting data from people close to children? (eg. caregivers)

Answer 9

1) Human memory is not completely reliable
2) People motivated to remember themselves in best light possible. May remember themselves as more consistent, patient, and even-tempered with their children than reality
3) Social desirability bias

Question 10

Name 2 strategies to increase accuracy in collecting data from parents in home setting.

Answer 10

Ask parents to recall only more recent events to ensure more reliable memories
Phone parents every evening to ask specific behaviours exhibited by child in past 24h
Ask parents to keep a structured diary to record child’s behaviours at regular intervals
Ask parents to carry pagers, which beep at random, asking parents to record activities or feelings. Random sampling of situations and behaviours.

Question 11

What strategies can increase accuracy in collecting data from teachers and peers in school setting.

Answer 11

Ask teachers to rate children on dimensions such as attentiveness, dependability, and sociability in different situations (eg. classroom, recess etc.)
Ask peers to rate how well the child is accepted by other peers in class. (eg. “How much I like to play with.”)
Combine ratings to yield `child’s social status in class

Question 12

Observation can be done in which 2 types of settings?

Answer 12

Laboratories

Natural setting

Question 13

What are 2 limitations of observation?

Answer 13

observers’ bias
social desirability bias
Data only valid if presence of an observer or other demands of situation do not distort the participants’ behaviour and responses. Can be difficult to achieve without robust measures.

Question 14

Describe the social desirability bias.

Answer 14

Tend to exhibit more socially desirable behaviour in unfamiliar settings than at home. Even in home observations, customary behaviour can be distorted by the presence of an observer. Parents tend to inhibit negative behaviour when they are watched.

Question 15

What are some strategies to minimize social desirability bias and observers bias in observation?

Answer 15

Using less obtrusive observational methods (eg. sound recordings, cctv)
Observer conducting regular visits so family gets used to it; less socially desirable behaviours start to surface

Question 16

When is structured observation used?

Answer 16

When researcher arranges a situation to observe a specific behaviour

Question 17

When are structured interviews conducted?

Answer 17

Used to elicit children’s responses to a questionnaire that they cannot complete themselves

Question 18

When are non-structured interviews conducted?

Answer 18

To explore children’s reasoning in greater depth

Question 19

What is Piaget’s ‘clinical interview technique’?

Answer 19

Conduct an interview on a certain topic, but rather than following a pre-set script, he probed a child’s answers further. Probe a child’ reasoning and reveal errors or notable features of a child’s thinking. Used to complement experimental and observational data. Useful in establishing new information on a topic and build ideas for further, more systematic study.

Question 20

Why must we select a representative population?

Answer 20

So research conclusions can be generalised to the population. Context and culture can heavily influence development.

Question 21

What are the challenges of selecting a representative population?

Answer 21

Expensive and time consuming

Question 22

What is the purpose of correlational research designs?

Answer 22

Enables researchers to establish that certain experiences or factors are related to each other and to assess the strength of the relations

Question 23

If correlational design cannot determine causation, why do we still use it?

Answer 23

1) Many questions are difficult to study in a controlled laboratory design
2) Understanding causal processes is not the goal of all developmental research

Question 24

Experiments can be carried out under ____ and ____ settings.

Answer 24

laboratories; natural

Question 25

What are the 2 groups of participants in experimental design? What method do we use to put them into the groups?

Answer 25

experiment group; control group

random assignment

Question 26

What is an advantage of laboratory experiment?

Answer 26

Can control every possible factors that may influence the variable they are interested in, allowing results to draw clearer conclusions about cause and effect

Question 27

What is ecological validity? Why is it difficult to ensure ecological validity of laboratory experiments?

Answer 27

Refers to accuracy of representation of events and processes occurring in the natural environment. Prevent generalisation from experimental situation to the natural world.

Question 28

What is a field experiment?

Answer 28

Investigators deliberately introduce a change (manipulation) in individual’s normal environment and measure outcome of manipulation.

Question 29

Which bias is important to caution of for field experiment?

Answer 29

observer bias - the tendency of observers who are knowledgeable about a hypothesis to be influenced in their observations by that knowledge.

Question 30

What is an advantage of field experiment over laboratory experiment?

Answer 30

More readily generalised to real-life experiences and settings

Question 31

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 31

An experiment where researchers measure the results of events that occur naturally in the real world.

Question 32

What is one reason why natural experiments may be used instead of field experiments?

Answer 32

Researchers may not be able to introduce changes due to ethical or practical reasons.

Question 33

Is there random assignment in natural experiment?

Answer 33

no. Researchers select the children they study because they are already exposed to a set of conditions that are of interest.

Question 34

What is the general purpose of case-study approach?

Answer 34

Allow researchers to explore phenomena they do not often encounter.
Eg. unusual talent, rare developmental disorder, model classroom

Question 35

What is an advantage of case-study approach over experimental approach?

Answer 35

Provides insights or hypotheses that can be later investigated in a more systematic manner

Question 36

What is a limitation of the case study approach?

Answer 36

Without further study or a larger sample, it is difficult to know if the results can generalise to other people or situations

Question 37

What is the microgenetic method of case study?

Answer 37

Involves studying changes in an individual’s behaviour over time on the same or similar set of tasks. Explores use of strategy to solve a problem.

Question 38

What are the 3 key principles of the microgenetic method of case study?

Answer 38

1) Observation need to identify some sort of change (ie. from before to after the acquisition of a skill or understanding)
2) Requires frequent and high number of observations to capture the processes of change as they are happening
3) Observations must be closely analysed to identify any source of change

Question 39

Rank the following designs from low to high control over IV: correlational, laboratory experiment, field experiment, natural experiment.

Answer 39

correlational, lab (high)
field (med)
natural (low)

Question 40

Which research design do we have highest control over DV? correlational, lab, field, natural experiment

Answer 40

laboratory experiment

Question 41

Rank the following designs from low to high on generalisability: correlational, laboratory experiment, field experiment, natural experiment.

Answer 41

correlational (med)
lab (low)
field & natural (high)

Question 42

What are the 3 methods of studying change over time?

Answer 42

1) cross-sectional method
2) longitudinal method
3) sequential method

Question 43

Describe the cross-sectional method to study change over time.

Answer 43

Researchers compare different individuals of different ages at the same point in time.
Determine how changes associated with age may unfold over course of development

Question 44

What is a limitation of the cross-sectional method in studying change over time?

Answer 44

Yields no information about causes behind these age-related changes. May be cohort effects.

Question 45

Describe the longitudinal-method to study change over time.

Answer 45

Follows same group of children over long period of time. Studied repeatedly at various points in their lives to assess patterns of stability and change over time.

Question 46

What is an advantage of the longitudinal method over cross-sectional method?

Answer 46

May explore possible causes. Powerful method for evaluating impact of earlier events on later behaviour.

Question 47

What are 3 limitations of the longitudinal method?

Answer 47

Time consuming
Problem of losing participants
Practice effects