7. Higher Order Cognitive Function

Question 1

how do we test cognitive flexibility?

Answer 1

• task-switching method
  
  • participants respond to one type of stimulus in one set of trials (judging if a number is odd) and the opposite in the next set of trials (judging if a number is even)

Question 2

how does executive function change as we age?

Answer 2

• scores on measures of executive functioning appear to show steady declines in later adulthood
• changes are usually in the part of the brain related to plan, make decisions, and adapt to changing situations
• higher level of education = less changes in executive function (especially verbal fluency)

Question 3

what are some activities that benefit executive functioning?

Answer 3

• physical exercise benefits executive functioning in older adults
  
  • especially if it is a lifetime habit
• video games also have a positive effect as they require people to switch their attention rapidly

Question 4

how does our language change as we age?

Answer 4

• involves comprehension, memory, and decision-making, which are negatively impacted by aging
• the average healthy older adult does not suffer significant losses in the ability to use language effectively under normal speaking conditions
• basic abilities to carry on a conversation, read, and write remain intact

Question 5

how does the cognitive aspect of language change as we age?

Answer 5

• as we age, we have slower processing speed while reading
  
  • also have greater difficulty forming visual images when reading
• older adults preserve the ability to process and remember general features of a story
  
  • are much less likely to remember specific details
• older adults appear to compensate for changes in comprehension by activating more neural circuits than do younger adult
• decreases in working memory makes them unable to construct complex sentences

Question 6

how do changes in hearing and speech affect language?

Answer 6

• changes in hearing and speech perception can affect ability to comprehend spoken language
• hearing deficits create additional strain on an older adult’s processing resources
  
  • semantic judgements that would otherwise be automatic now require more effort

Question 7

how does the content of the things we talk about change as we age?

Answer 7

• older adults tend to reminisce with others about experiences from the past
• may help them solidify relationships and build shared identities with others from their generation
• young adults are better able to focus their speech while older adults seem to speak off topic more often
• older adults may experience “mental clutter” due to an inability to inhibit irrelevant information

Question 8

what is elderspeak?

Answer 8

• speech pattern directed at older adults similar to the way people talk to babies
  
  • involves simplifying your speech by leaving out complex words or talking in a patronizing or condescending tone of voice

Question 9

what is communication predicament model?

Answer 9

• older adults are thought of as mentally incapacitated, leading younger people to speak to them in a simplified manner
  
  • this can reduce the older adult’s actual ability to use language

Question 10

what is infantilization?

Answer 10

• older person loses the incentive to attempt to regain self‐sufficiency in the basic activities of daily life
  
  • when older adults in a residential facility are treated by younger staff in an infantilizing manner, they lose the desire to socialize with each other
• infantilization can also increase the older person’s awareness of age stereotypes, causing a self‐fulfilling prophecy to spread

Question 11

how does bilingualism affect our language as we age? and why?

Answer 11

• even if the speaker no longer relies on one of the languages, that second language remains active
  
  • this means that the bilingual speaker must add the step of deciding which language to use in a given situation
• this extra practice in executive functions may result in protection against effects of alzheimer’s disease
  
  • bilingual older adults had a later age of disease onset for MCI and AD by ~6 years
• in working memory tasks, bilingual older adults seem to have greater difficulty with verbal than spatial stimuli

Question 12

how do older adults differ from younger adults when making decisions?

Answer 12

• extensive experience enhances problem-solving performance and feelings of self-efficacy
• older adults may also make choices that are better founded and less subject to extraneous factors
• older adults avoid the “attraction effect” - make more rational spending decisions
• older adults have less effective analytic strategies but better heuristics
• older adults are less able to organize multiple sources of information, leading their decisions to be based on prior experience

Question 13

how does intelligence change as we age?

Answer 13

• intelligence peaks in early adulthood followed by a steady decline
• there are two main categories of mental abilities; verbal and non-verbal intelligence

Question 14

what aspects of intelligence have the least and most notable changes?

Answer 14

• vocabulary showed the least amount of change, was steady until about age 74
• largest drop in scores was for numeric ability
• declines in intelligence begin at age 20

Question 15

what are some health and lifestyle factors that affect intelligence scores?

Answer 15

• arthritis, cancer, metabolic syndrome, and osteoporosis are health conditions associated with intelligence test scores
• social network involvement helps protect memory and semantic fluency
• engagement in diversified leisure activities positively affects cognition
• having a stimulating job may also benefit an individual’s intellectual performance in later life

Question 16

how do personality factors affect intelligence?

Answer 16

• people who score high on measures of anxiety exhibit poorer performance on a variety of fluid and crystallized tests
  
  • being flexible and open‐minded is related to better intellectual performance over time
• higher levels of openness also predict longer preservation of intelligence
  
  • intelligent people are higher in openness because they are better at things and more willing to try new things

Question 17

what is Openness‐Fluid‐Crystallized‐Intelligence (OFCI)?

Answer 17

• regards personality openness as a protective factor against cognitive decline in later adulthood

Question 18

what is reserve capacity?

Answer 18

• abilities that are there to be used but are currently untapped
  
  • training studies operate according to this principle
• tapping into an individual’s reserve capacity involves testing the limits
  
  • process of continuing to train people until they show no further improvements

Question 19

do training studies actually improve intelligence?

Answer 19

• given practice and training in test‐taking strategies, older adults could improve their scores on tests of fluid intelligence
• training in fluid intelligence tasks such as inductive reasoning could produce gains that lasted for at least seven years

Question 20

what is wisdom? how is it related to intelligence?

Answer 20

• individual’s knowledge of the ways of the world and understanding of how other people feel, think, and behave
• adults become increasingly capable of dealing with higher‐level conceptual issues (ones that require wisdom)
  - this is not measured by traditional intelligence tests

Question 21

how do levels of wisdom change as we age? what positive affects does being wise have?

Answer 21

• wise people become less likely to judge others, and have a greater appreciation for individual differences
• older adults are better able to take multiple perspectives, try to forge compromises, and recognize the limitations of knowledge
• more wise → higher life satisfaction, lower negative affect, less of a tendency to have depressive thoughts, and better social relationship

Question 22

how do we test inductive reasoning?

Answer 22

by seeing a pattern and guessing the next in the sequence

Question 23

how do we test spatial orientation?

Answer 23

have to match images and sometimes rotate them in our heads

Question 24

how do mental abilities change according to cross sectional and longitudinal studies?

Answer 24

• cross sectional - verbal meaning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, and word fluency were lower for older people
  
  • but, later cohorts have higher mental scores than previous cohorts
• longitudinal - we improve in mental abilities until around 50 then steadily decline

Question 25

what are the differences between older men and older women’s mental abilities?

Answer 25

men aged 50-90…
- performed better than women on visual-spacial tests
- were outperformed by women in most other cognitive tests
- showed steeper rates of decline than women

Question 26

what is financial capacity?

Answer 26

• the capacity to manage money and financial assets in ways that meet a person’s needs and which are consistent with his/her values and self-interest

Question 27

when do we have peak performance for financial capacity?

Answer 27

• average age for peak performance is ~50
• people at this age are least likely to make a rate-changing mistake on a lone
• younger people’s lack of experience makes them not as good
• older people are disadvantaged because of changes in technology

Question 28

what are some warning signs of decreased financial capacity?

Answer 28

• memory lapses
• disorganization
• declines in cheque book management skills
• arithmetic mistakes
• conceptual confusion
• impaired judgement

Question 29

how should we act on warning signs of decreased financial capacity?

Answer 29

• discuss concerns with the individual
• help with financial asks but allow some independence
• assure the proper paperwork is in place

Question 30

what is the real world impact of decreased financial capacity?

Answer 30

• financial management
• independent living
• driving
• treatment decisions and consent
• testamentary capacity - determining your will and estate
• research consent

Question 31

what are some activities associated with combatting cognitive declines?

Answer 31

in order of amount of impact:
- physical activity
- mental activity
- social activity

Question 32

how do video games help combat cognitive decline?

Answer 32

• improve performance on the trained task
• MAY improve performance on closely related tasks
• don’t enhance performance on distantly related tasks
• don’t improve everyday cognitive performance

Question 33

how does exercise help combat cognitive decline?

Answer 33

• helps prevent age-related cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases
• in healthy older adults, aerobic exercise and resistance training improve cognitive function
• moderate midlife and later life activity is associated with decreased risk of MCI and dementias
• exercise in those with MCI and dementia improves some aspects of cognitive function

Question 34

how does playing/learning music help combat cognitive decline?

Answer 34

• both learning and playing music has been seen to positively impact cognitive function in older adults
• those with at least 10 years of musical experience had better cognitive function relative to non-musicians
• lower rates of dementia in frequent vs. infrequent musical instrument players
• improved working memory, perceptual speed, and motor skills after 6 months of piano lessons

Question 35

how does dancing help combat cognitive decline?

Answer 35

• is a promising neuroplasticity-inducing tool because it combines many diverse features
• 6 months of dancing classes improved cognition, motor performance, subjective well-being, reaction time, and posture
• people who did 6 months of dancing class and/or fitness training had improved physical fitness and attention and spatial memory
  
  • dancers also had increased brain volume

Question 36

what are some other benefits of music and dancing?

Answer 36

both are intense, cognitively demanding, multi-sensory, and motor experiences that result in…
- feelings of pleasure and enjoyment
- creation and maintenance of social connections
- a means of creative self-expression
- the construction of identity
- opportunities for continuous and increasingly complex learning
- pride and sense of accomplishment in learning

Question 37

how does social engagement affect cognitive decline?

Answer 37

compared to socially isolated individuals, socially active people have…
- decreased risk of dementias
- better cognitive function