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A level Biology > 6.4 cloning and biotechnology > Flashcards

6.4 cloning and biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

define clones

A

genetically identicl organisms or cells

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2
Q

define vegetative propagation

A

reproduction from vegetative parts of plants usually from an over-winering organ

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3
Q

Give some examples of natural cloning

A

mitosis
yeast in budding
bacteria in binary fission

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4
Q

what are the advantages of natural cloning

A

cloning is relatively rapid
reproduction can be carried out even if there is only one parent
if conditions of growth are good for parent it will be good for offspring

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5
Q

What are some disadvantages of natural clones

A

offspring may be overcrowded
no genetic diversity
population shows little variation
selection is not possible
population is susceptible to changes

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6
Q

Why might natural cloning be used in horticulture

A

to increase the number of plants

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7
Q

What are runners or stolens

A

Horizontal stems above ground that can form roots at certain points

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8
Q

What are rhizomes

A

horizontal stems below ground that are able to form roots at certain points

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9
Q

What are suckers

A

new stems that grow from the roots of plants

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10
Q

What are bulbs

A

over-wintering mechanism
they consist of an underground stem from which grow a series of fleshy leaf bases there is also an apical bud which will grow into a new plant

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11
Q

What are corms

A

Underground stem with scaly leaves and buds
they remain in the ground over winter and produce one or more new plants in spring

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12
Q

How do bulbs and corms differ

A

Corms are solid rather than fleshy like bulbs

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13
Q

how can leaves propogate

A

kalanchoe plants reproduce asexually as clones grow on the leaf margins and immature plants drop off and take root

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14
Q

What are tubers

A

another type of underground stem
potatoes are tubers and one potato will grow into one or more plants each new plant can produce many new tubers

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15
Q

Give examples of natural cloning in animals

A

Mammals clone when twins are forms - the zygote divides as normal but the two daughter cells split into two separate cells
water flea
green fly

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16
Q

Why is asexual reproduction quicker

A

no need for finding a mate going through courtship meiosis and fertilisation

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17
Q

why are plants more likely to reproduce asexually

A

the cells do not differentiate as completely
there are areas of meristem in the plant

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18
Q

why is it an advantage for small mobile animals to be able to reproduces asexually

A

able to take advantage of favourable environment quickly so there is no need to find a mate
if conditions ideal fro parent the will be ideal for the offspring

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19
Q

why is it likely a plant such as kalanchoe will become overcrowded

A

the offspring will not be dispersed well and grow close to the parent plant

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20
Q

suggest why many plants will grow suckers after the main stem has been damaged

A

The main stem releases plant hormones or growth substances. If production is changed (by cutting the stem) the roots are stimulated to grow suckers. Changing conditions, such as less shade after stem has been cut, may also stimulate roots to grow suckers.
the new stem will grow as a separate individual

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21
Q

Describe how to make a cutting

A

stem is cut between two leaf joints(nodes) and the cut end is placed in moist soil
new roots will grow from the tissues in the stem

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22
Q

How can we help stimulate root growth in cuttings

A

Dipping them in rooting hormones

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23
Q

Why are cutting used

A

can be used to produce large numbers of plants quickly

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24
Q

What other parts of the plant can cuttings be made from

A

root
scion- dormant woody twigs
leaf

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25
Q

Why are cuttings not used for large-scale cloning

A

time-consuming and require a lot of space and some plants do not respond well to cuttings

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26
Q

Define tissue culture

A

growing new tissues organs or plants from certain tissues cut from a sample plant

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27
Q

Under what conditions iws tissue culture carried out

A

sterile

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28
Q

Define micropropagation

A

growing large numbers of new plants from meristem tissue taken from a sample plant

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29
Q

What are explants

A

plant material selected and cut into pieces

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30
Q

Why are explants usually meristem

A

always free from virus infection

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31
Q

what is a callus

A

a mass of undifferentiated totipotent cells

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32
Q

Describe the steps involved in micropropagation

A

explant is collected

explant is sterilised using alcohol or dilute bleach to kill any bacteria or fungi

explants are placed on a sterile growth medium such as agar gel containing suitable nutrients such as glucose and high concentrations of auxin and cytokinin which stimulates cells of explant to divide by mitosis to form a callus

callus is divided to form a larger number of small clumps of undifferentiated cells

small callus clumps are then stimulated to grow divide and differentiate to plant tissues by moving them to different growth media

once plantlets are formed they are transferred to a greenhouse and compost

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33
Q

describe the different ratios of the growth media that the callus clumps are transferred to during micropropagation

A

100:1 auxin:cytokinin - stimulates root formation
4:1 auxin:cytokinin - stimulates shoot formation

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34
Q

What are the advantages of artificial plant cloning

A

relatively rapid
can be carried out where sexual reproduction is not possible
plants are all genetically identical
uniform in phenotypes
ensures plants are virus free

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35
Q

What are some disadvantages of artificial cloning of plants

A

labour intensive
expensive
can fail due to microbial contamination
cloned offspring will be susceptible to the same pathogens
no genetic variation

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36
Q

why do the new roots usually grow from the node

A

The node contains a meristem (this may be a dormant bud). This is a group of cells that can divide and
differentiate into different cell types. The side branch would normally grow from this meristem, but if the cutting is planted in moist soil, roots will grow.

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37
Q

define enucleation

A

removal of a cell nucleus

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38
Q

define embryo twinning

A

splitting an embryo to create two genetically identical embryos

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39
Q

Define somatic cell nuclear transfer

A

technique that involves transferring the nucleus from a somatic cell to an egg cell

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40
Q

What kind of cells does successful artificial cloning in animals begin with

A

totipotent cells - very early embryo cells

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41
Q

Why may animal cloning be useful

A

produce elite farm animals
genetically modified animals such as goats which produce spider silk in their milk

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42
Q

Describe the process of embryo splitting

A

a zygote is created in IVF and allowed to divide by mitosis to form a small ball
the cells are separated and allowed to continue dividing
each small mass is placed in the uterus of the surrogate mother
produced offspring are all clones

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43
Q

Why might embryo splitting be used

A

2 high value cows may be bred together to produce many high value calfs

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44
Q

What is a setback of of embryo splitting

A

the precise genotype and phenotype of offspring depend on sperm and egg used so precise phenotypes will not be known till offspring are born

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45
Q

What are some examples of reproductive cloning

A

embryo splitting
somatic cell nuclear transfer

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46
Q

Describe the process of somatic cell nuclear transfer

A

an egg cell is obtained and enucleated

a somatic cell is isolated and has the nucleus removed

the somatic cell and empty egg cell are fused by applying an electric shock this causes the egg cell to start developing as though it had just been fertilised

the cell undergoes mitosis to form a small ball of cells and is then planted in a surrogate mother

47
Q

Why might SMCT have an advantage over embryo winning

A

the phenotype of the offspring are already known

48
Q

what are some examples of non-reproductive cloning

A

therapeutic and cloning for scientific research

49
Q

what are some examples of therapeutic cloning

A

skin cells grown in vitro for grafts on burn victims
potential to grow whole organs to replace diseased organs

50
Q

What are some examples of cloning for scientific research

A

to test drugs
research into action of genes that control development and differentiation

51
Q

What are some arguments for artificial cloning in animals

A

can produce a herd of animals with a high yield showing desirable or unusual characteristics - spider goats

genetically identical high value animals
allows drug testing without using animals
endangered individuals can be cloned to increase numbers
less chance of rejection when used for transplants or repairing damage

52
Q

What are some arguments against artificial cloning in animals

A

lack of genetic variation
success rate of adult cell cloning is poor
ethical issues associated with length of embryo survival
doesn’t help increase genetic diversity

53
Q

Define biotechnology

A

The use of living organisms or parts of living organisms in industrial processes

54
Q

Give some examples of biotechnology in food

A

ethanol in beer and wine - yeast
CO2 to make bread rise - yeast
lactic acid to make yoghurt and cheese - lactobacillus bacteria

55
Q

Give some examples of biotechnology in pharmaceuticals

A

penicillin - penicillium fungus
insulin and other therapeutic human proteins - genetically modified bacteria

56
Q

Give some examples of enzymes in biotechnology

A

protease and lipase used in washing powders - bacteria
lactase to make lactose free milk - A.niger A.oryzae
protease used to tenderise meat - Aspergillus spp

57
Q

Give some examples of biotechnology in other products

A

biogas - anaerobic bacteria
bioremediation - cleaning waste water - variety of bacteria and fungus

58
Q

What are the advantages of using microorganisms in biotechnology

A

Relatively cheap and easy to grow
production takes place at low temperatures and normal pressure
production is not dependant on climate
can be fed by products from other industries
reproduce quickly
fewer ethical consideration
can be easily genetically modified

59
Q

How are other organisms used in biotechnology

A

Genetic modification if mammals such as goats which produce spiders silk in their milk and cows which produce human antibodies

60
Q

Give other forms of biotechnology other than industrial processes

A

gene technology
selective breeding
immunology
cloning
gene modification and gene therapy

61
Q

How is yoghurt produced

A

milk undergoes fermentation and the bacteria convert lactose into lactic acid and the acidity denatures the milk protein causing it to coagulate

62
Q

what are probiotics

A

bacteria which may benefit human health by improving digestion, stimulating the immune system or aiding gastrointestinal function

63
Q

How is cheese produced

A

acidified milk is mixed with rennet which contains the enzyme rennin which coagulates the milk protein in the presence of calcium ions and the curd is then pressed into molds

64
Q

what are the three steps in bread making

A

mixing
proving
cooking

65
Q

Describe why the steps in baking are important

A

proving produces carbon dioxide and and causes the dough to rise
cooking evaporates alcohol out of the dough

66
Q

describe how alcoholic beverages are produced

A

yeast uses sugars in fruit to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol
malting - as grain germinates it converts stored starch to maltose which is respired by the yeast

67
Q

What are single cell proteins

A

manufacture of protein that is directly used as food for example Quorn
these microorganisms can produce a protein with a similar amino acid to animal and plant protein and can grow on almost any organic substrate including waste such as whey

68
Q

What are some advantages of SCP

A

production is faster
biomass has very high protein content
production can be increased according to demand
no animal welfare issues
no animal fat or cholesterol

69
Q

what are some disadvantages of SCP

A

does not have a taste or texture
conditions needed are also ideal for pathogens
some people do not want to eat fungal protein or food grown on waste
protein has to be purified to ensure it is uncontaminated

70
Q

What are the 10 components of a fermenter

A

pressure vent
air inlet
mixing blades
water jacket
outlet tap
air outlet
electronic probes
water jacket outlet
inlet for nutrients
motor

71
Q

What are the different types of culture

A

batch and continuous

72
Q

what type of metabolites are associated with batch cultures

A

secondary

73
Q

What type of metabolites are associated with continuous culture

A

primary

74
Q

define primary metabolite

A

products are continuously released and can be extracted continuously from the fermenting broth usually in log phase-insulin

75
Q

define continuous culture

A

some of the broth is removed regularly and there is a constant nutrient supply

76
Q

define secondary metabolite

A

produced when cells are placed under stress such as high population density or limited nutrients and often occurs during stationary phase-penicillin

77
Q

define batch culture

A

culture is set up with a limited quantity and allowed to ferment for a specific time and after the fermenter is empties

78
Q

Define asepsis

A

ensuring sterile conditions are maintined

79
Q

what do unwanted microorganisms do to a culture

A

compete with cultured microorganisms for space and nutrients
reduce yield of useful product
spoil the product
destroy the cultured microorganism may produce toxic chemicals

80
Q

define bioremediation

A

the use of microorganism to clean soil and underground water on polluted sites by converting toxic pollutants to less harmful substances

81
Q

What conditions does bioremediation require and what happens if these arent reached

A

available water
suitable temperature
suitable pH
they may be modified by the addition of suitable substances e.g. additional nutrients may be added to ensure microorganisms can grow effectively or oxygen may be pumped

82
Q

what are the advantages of bioremediation

A

uses natural systems
less labour and equipment required
treatment in situ
few waste products
less exposure risk to clean up crew

83
Q

What are the disadvantages of bioremediation

A

only suitable for certain products and heavy metals such as cadmium and lead cannot be treated

84
Q

Define aseptic technique

A

developed to reduce the likelihood of contaminating medium with unwanted bacteria or fungin

85
Q

What are the three main steps for growing microorganisms on agar plates

A

sterilisation, inoculation, incubation

86
Q

describe sterilisation

A

medium is sterilised by heating an an autoclave at 121 for 15mins and from that point onwards equipment is sterilised by heating

87
Q

describe inoculation

A

streaking
spreading
seeding
moist cotton swab

88
Q

describe incubation

A

labelled petri dish has bottom and top taped with 2 strips of adhesive but not fully as to prevent anaerobic bacteria formation,
placed in a warm environment of the suitable temperature
placed upside down so condensation doesn’t fall on the agar

89
Q

What is a serial dilution

A

sequence of dilutions used to reduce the concentration of a solution or suspension

90
Q

What is the purpose of a serial dilution in culturing

A

reduces the population density of the microorganism as too many colonies may merge making it impossible to count

91
Q

What are the phases in the bacteria growth curve

A

lag
log
stationary
death

92
Q

Describe the lag phase in bacteria

A

population is small and adjusting to the new environments this may involve
water uptake
cell growth
switching on certain genes
synthesising specific proteins

93
Q

Describe the log phase in bacteria

A

each have the enzymes needed to survive and each individual has sufficient nutrients to grow rapidly and frequently

94
Q

Describe the stationary phase in bacteria

A

the rate of population growth declines and the number of individuals dying increases until reproduction rate is equal to growth rate

95
Q

Describe the decline phase in bacteria

A

nutrients run out and concentration of waste products may become lethal

96
Q

define immobilised enzymes

A

enzyme that is held in place and not free to diffuse through the solution

97
Q

what are the advantages of immobilised enzymes

A

extraction costs are lower
enzymes can be easily reused
continuous process is made easier as there are no cells requiring nutrients or producing waste products
immobilising matrix protects them from extreme conditions

98
Q

What are the disadvantages of immobilised enzymes

A

usually less active than free enzymes making the process slower

99
Q

What are the methods used to immobilise enzymes

A

adsorption
covalent bonding
entrapment
membrane separation

100
Q

Describe how enzymes are immobilised using adsorption

A

enzyme molecules are bound to a supporting surface by a combination of hydrophobic interaction and ionic links
suitable surfaces include clay, resin and glass beads

101
Q

What are the drawbacks of using adsorption to immobilise enzymes

A

active sight may be slightly distorted and additional interactions may affect enzyme activity
enzymes can also get detached and leak into the reaction mixture

102
Q

describe how enzymes are immobilised using covalent bonding

A

enzyme molecules are bonded to a supporting surface such as clay using strong covalent bonds and cross-linking agents which may also link them in a chain
less likely to become detached

103
Q

what are the drawbacks of using covalent bonds to immobilised enzymes

A

expensive and can distort the active site

104
Q

Describe how enzymes are immobilised using entrapment

A

they are trapped in a matrix that does not allow free movement

105
Q

What are the advantages of entrapment

A

enzyme molecules are unaffected and remain fully active

106
Q

What are the disadvantages of entrapment

A

molecules must diffuse into the matrix and product molecules must be able to diffuse out the method is therefore only suitable for processes where the substrate and product molecules are very small

107
Q

Describe how enzymes can be immobilised using membrane separation

A

enzyme molecules are separated from the reaction mixture by a partially permeable membrane and similarly to entrapment the substrate and product must be small enough to diffuse through the partially permeable membrane and this may limit the enzyme reaction rate

108
Q

What are some of the examples of immobilised enzymes used in industry

A

glucose isomerase
penicillin acylase
lactase
aminoacyclase
glucoamylase
nitrile hydratase

109
Q

Describe the industrial uses of glucose isomerase

A

converts glucose to fructose
used to produce high-fructose corn syrups that is often used in diet foods

110
Q

Describe the industrial uses of penicillin acylase

A

formation of semi-synthetic penicillin’s such as amoxicillin

111
Q

Describe the industrial uses of aminoacyclase

A

used to produce pure samples of L-amino acids which are the building blocks for synthesis of a number of pharmaceutical and agrochemical compounds

112
Q

Describe the industrial uses of lactase

A

converts lactose to glucose and galactose by hydrolysis used to produce lactose-free milk

113
Q

Describe the industrial uses of glucoamylase

A

converts dextrin to glucose and the enzyme is used in a wide variety of fermentation processes including conversion of starch pulp to alcohol to gasohol used in motor vehicles
dextrin produced by hydrolysis of starch

114
Q

Describe the industrial uses of nitrile hydratase

A

converts nitriles to amides
including acrylonitrile to acrylamide which can be converted to polyacrylamide which is a plastic used as a thickener -
helps stick contaminants in water together so that they are precipitaed and easy to filter out of water

A level Biology (25 decks)

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