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Cell and Molecular Biology > 6 > Flashcards

6 Flashcards

1
Q

Diffusion across cell membrane

Cell membrane is the boundary between inside & outside…

A

and it separates cell from its environment

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2
Q

Can it be an impenetrable boundary?

A

NO!

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3
Q

Why it cannot be an impenetrable boundary?

A

Because cell needs materials in & products or waste out.

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4
Q

What are the substances inside of the cell membrane?

A

Food such as
carbohydrates,
sugars,
proteins,
amino acids,
lipids,
salts,
O2,
H2O

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5
Q

What are the substances outside of the cell membrane?

A

Waste such as
ammonia,
salts,
CO2,
H2O, and
products

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6
Q

Permeability of the Plasma Membrane

Differentially (selectively) Permeable

A

Allows some materials to pass.
- Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide

Prevents others from passing.
- Proteins, carbohydrates

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7
Q

Permeability of the Plasma Membrane

Factors that determine how a substance may be transported across a plasma membrane:

A

Size
Polar or Nonpolar
charge

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8
Q

PASSIVE DIFFUSION

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

A

governs biological systems
– universe tends towards disorder (entropy)

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9
Q

is a measure of disorder or randomness in a system, often interpreted as the tendency for energy to disperse and systems to move toward equilibrium

A

Entropy

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10
Q

is the movement of molecules across a membrane without the need for energy input, occurring naturally from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. This process helps equalize concentrations on both sides of the membrane, allowing substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and small uncharged molecules to move freely.

A

Passive diffusion

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11
Q

PASSIVE DIFFUSION

Only ____, relatively ____ molecules are able to diffuse across a _______ at significant rates by using passive diffusion.

A

small
hydrophobic
phospholipid bilayer

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12
Q

Passive Diffusion

Molecules have to _______ in lipid interior.

A

dissolve

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13
Q

Molecules have to dissolve in lipid interior. Molecules such as?

A
  • Gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide)
  • Water molecules (rate slow due to polarity)
  • Lipids (steroid hormones)
  • Lipid soluble molecules (hydrocarbons, alcohols, some
    vitamins)
  • Small noncharged molecules (NH3)
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14
Q

Water molecules has slow rate due to?

A

polarity

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15
Q

Why large polar molecules (e.g glucose) and charged molecules (e.g amino acids and ions) cannot pass through the plasma membrane?

A

Because the membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer, which is hydrophobic (water-repelling). This structure prevents these molecules from dissolving in or diffusing through the lipid layer. Instead, they often require specific transport proteins or channels to facilitate their movement across the membrane.

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16
Q

Why is diffusion important to cells and humans?

A

Because it allows essential substances, like oxygen and nutrients, to move into cells while enabling waste products to exit, maintaining cellular function and homeostasis.

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17
Q

Why is diffusion important to cell respiration?

A

Oxygen diffuses into cells for aerobic respiration, while carbon dioxide, a waste product, diffuses out.

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18
Q

Why is diffusion important to Alveoli of lungs?

A

Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.

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19
Q

Why is diffusion important to Capillaries?

A

Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from the blood into surrounding tissues, while waste products diffuse from tissues into the blood.

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20
Q

Why is diffusion important to Red Blood Cells?

A

Oxygen binds to hemoglobin for transport, and carbon dioxide diffuses into red blood cells to be carried back to the lungs.

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21
Q

Why is diffusion important to Medications: timerelease capsules?

A

Drugs diffuse slowly through the capsule membrane, allowing for gradual absorption into the bloodstream over time.

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22
Q

What is Facilitated Diffusion?

A

Facilitated diffusion is the process by which molecules move across a cell membrane through specific transport proteins, allowing substances that cannot easily pass through the lipid bilayer (such as large polar or charged molecules) to enter or exit the cell. This process still occurs along the concentration gradient and does not require energy.

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23
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

Is a diffusion through protein channels which do not interact with hydrophobic interior.

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24
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

Diffusion through protein channels which do not interact with hydrophobic interior

A
  • For biological mol unable to dissolve in hydrophobic interior.
    – No energy needed.
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25
Q

facilitated = _______

A

with help

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26
Q

open channel = _______

A

fast transport

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27
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

The passage of materials is aided both by a ________ and by a _________.

A

concentration gradient
transport protein

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28
Q

Two kinds of Proteins

A

Carrier Proteins
Channel Proteins

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29
Q

Carrier Proteins

A

bind specific molecules, undergo conformational change to release molecule
- ex. Glucose transporters

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30
Q

Channel Proteins

A
  • form open pores for free diffusion
  • found in gap junctions
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31
Q

Molecules will randomly move through the pores in ________

A

Channel Proteins

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32
Q

Some _________ do not extend through the membrane.

A

Carrier proteins

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33
Q

Carrier proteins _______ molecules through the lipid bilayer and release them on the opposite side.

A

bond and drag

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34
Q

__________ change shape to move materials across the cell membrane.

A

Other carrier proteins

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35
Q

How do molecules move through the plasma membrane by facilitated diffusion?

A

Facilitated diffusion allows molecules like glucose and ions to move across the plasma membrane via specific transport proteins. These proteins create a pathway that helps the molecules bypass the lipid bilayer, moving from areas of higher concentration to lower concentration without energy expenditure.

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36
Q

How do molecules move through the plasma membrane by facilitated diffusion?

A
  • Channel and Carrier proteins are specific:
  • Channel Proteins allow ions, small solutes, and water to pass
  • Carrier Proteins move glucose and amino acids
  • Facilitated diffusion is rate limited, by the number of proteins channels/carriers present in the membrane.
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37
Q

Most cells, including erythrocytes, are exposed to __________ that are higher than those inside the cell, so facilitated diffusion results in the net inward _________.

A
  • extracellular glucose concentrations
  • transport of glucose
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38
Q

Most cells, including erythrocytes, are exposed to extracellular glucose concentrations that are higher than those inside the cell, so facilitated diffusion results in the net inward transport of glucose.

A
  • Cells obtain food for cell respiration
  • Neurons communicate
  • Small intestine cells transport food to bloodstream
  • Muscle cells contract
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39
Q

The Special Case of Water

A

Movement of water across the cell membrane

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40
Q

Aquaporins

A
  • Water Channels
  • Protein pores used during Osmosis
  • provide corridors allowing water molecules to cross the membrane.
  • Allow for fast transport
  • water channel proteins, aquaporins, make possible massive amounts of diffusion
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41
Q

What is Osmosis?

A

– Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a differentially permeable membrane.
– Osmotic pressure is the pressure that develops in a system due to osmosis.

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42
Q

Concentration of water

A

Direction of osmosis is determined by comparing total solute concentrations.

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43
Q

Hypertonic

A

more solute, less water

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44
Q

Hypotonic

A

less solute, more water

45
Q

Isotonic

A

equal solute, equal water

46
Q

What does net movement of water mean?

A

Net movement of water refers to the overall direction and amount of water that moves across a membrane, influenced by concentration gradients, with water moving from areas of lower solute concentration to areas of higher solute concentration until equilibrium is reached.

47
Q

Managing water balance

A

Cell survival depends on balancing water uptake & loss.

48
Q

Hypotonic Solution (freshwater)

A

Animal Cell - Lysed
Plant Cell - Turgid (normal)

49
Q

Isotonic solution (balanced)

A

Animal Cell - Normal
Plant Cell - Flaccid

50
Q

Hypertonic solution (saltwater)

A

Animal Cell - Shriveled
Plant Cell - Plasmolyzed

51
Q

Managing water balance

  • animal cell immersed in mild salt solution.
  • example: blood cells in blood plasma
  • problem: none
    – no net movement of water
    » flows across membrane
    equally, in both directions
    – volume of cell is stable
A

Isotonic

52
Q

Managing water balance
– a cell in fresh water
* example: Paramecium
* problem: gains water,
swells & can burst
– water continually enters Paramecium cell
* solution: contractile vacuole
– pumps water out of cell
– ATP
– plant cells
* turgid

A

Hypotonic

53
Q

Managing water balance

Hypertonic

A

– a cell in salt water
* example: shellfish
* problem: lose water & die
* solution: take up water or pump out salt
– plant cells
* plasmolysis = wilt

54
Q

Why is osmosis important to cells and humans?

A
  • Cells remove water produced by cell respiration.
  • Large intestine cells transport water to bloodstream.
  • Kidney cells form urine.
55
Q

Why is osmosis important to cells and humans? (chatgpt answer)

A

Osmosis is important because it allows cells to remove excess water produced by cellular respiration, enabling large intestine cells to effectively transport water into the bloodstream, and helps kidney cells concentrate waste, forming urine while maintaining the body’s fluid balance.

56
Q

DIFFUSION OF NON-LIPID SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES

Non-lipid soluble substances diffuse through ________.

A

membrane channels

57
Q

DIFFUSION OF NON-LIPID SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES

They passively diffuse _______________ through channels that cross the lipid bilayer; some channels are open all the time whereas others are
_____.

A

down their electrochemical gradient, gated

58
Q

DIFFUSION OF NON-LIPID SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES

The ________ regulates the opening/closing of the channel.

A

membrane potential (voltage)

59
Q

DIFFUSION OF NON-LIPID SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES

Example of a specific stimulus:
i) Voltage; ______
ii) Ligand; ________
iii) Specific stress; ______

A

i) VOLTAGE - GATED CHANNEL
ii) LIGAND -GATED CHANNELS
iii) STRESS – ACTIVATED CHANNELS

60
Q

Porins

A

permit the free passage of ions and small polar molecules through the outer membranes of bacteria.

61
Q

Ion channels

A

mediate the passage of ions across plasma membranes.

62
Q

Ligand-gated

A

channels open in response to the binding of neurotransmitters or other signaling molecules.

63
Q

Voltage-gated

A

channels open in response to changes in electric potential across the plasma membrane.

64
Q

Gated Channels

Open or close depending on the ________ or _______ of a physical or chemical stimulus.

A

presence
absence

65
Q

Gated Channels

Ex. neurotransmitters bind to specific gated channels on the receiving neuron, so these channels will ________

A

open

66
Q

Gated Channels

This allows ________ into a nerve cell.

A

sodium ions

67
Q

Gated Channels

When the ________ are not present, the channels are closed.

A

neurotransmitters

68
Q

VOLTAGE – GATED CHANNELS

Membrane potential

A

regulates opening/closing of the channel.

69
Q

VOLTAGE – GATED CHANNELS

a) K+ voltage-gated channels

A

exist as either open or close depending on the membrane voltage. It has only an activation gate.

70
Q

VOLTAGE – GATED CHANNELS

b) Na+ voltage gated channels

A

opens when the membrane potential depolarizes (i.e. becomes more positive).
- It has activation and inactivation gates.

71
Q

What is the Model of the operation of a G protein-linked receptor?

A

The model of a G protein-linked receptor describes how a ligand binds to the receptor, causing a conformational change that activates an associated G protein. This activated G protein then exchanges GDP for GTP, dissociates into its subunits, and interacts with target proteins in the cell, ultimately leading to a specific cellular response.

72
Q

Active Transport

Cells may need to move molecules _______ concentration gradient.

A

against

73
Q

Active Transport

Cells may need to move molecules against concentration gradient.

A

– shape change transports solute from one side of membrane to other
– protein “pump”
– “costs” energy = ATP

74
Q

Facilatated DIffusion = ________
Active Transport = __________

A

Th Bouncer
The Doorman

75
Q

The Importance of Active Transport

A
  • Bring in essential molecules: ions, amino acids, glucose, nucleotides
  • Rid cell of unwanted molecules (Ex. sodium from urine in kidneys)
  • Maintain internal conditions different from the environment
  • Regulate the volume of cells by controlling osmotic potential
  • Control cellular pH
  • Re-establish concentration gradients to run facilitated diffusion. (Ex. Sodium- Potassium pump and Proton pumps)
76
Q

Sodium-Potassium Pump Action summary

A
  • 3 Sodium ions move out of the cell and then 2 Potassium ions move into the cell.
  • Driven by the splitting of ATP to provide energy and conformational change to proteins by adding and then taking away a phosphate group.
  • Used to establish an electrochemical gradient across neuron cell membranes.
77
Q

Active transport can be classed into 2 groups

A
  1. PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
  2. SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
78
Q

(a) PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

A

Cellular energy (i.e. ATP) is directly used to move substances across the membrane against its concentration gradient (i.e. from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration)

79
Q

(b) SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

A

Secondary active transport uses the energy from the concentration gradient of one molecule to move another molecule against its gradient, either in the same direction (symport) or in opposite directions (antiport).

80
Q

Active Transport Driven by ATP Hydrolysis

____________, a process in which energy is provided by another coupled reaction, is used to drive the uphill transport of molecules in the energetically _____________.

A

Active transport
unfavorable direction

81
Q

Active Transport Driven by ATP Hydrolysis

___________ responsible for
maintaining gradients of ions
across the plasma membrane,
provide important examples of
active transport driven directly by
ATP hydrolysis

A

Ion pumps

82
Q

Active Transport Driven by Ion Gradients

Some molecules are transported against their concentration gradients using energy derived not from ATP hydrolysis, but from the _________________ in the energetically favorable direction.

A

coupled transport of a second molecule

83
Q

Active Transport Driven by Ion Gradients

The ___________ lining the intestine provide a good example of active transport drive by the Na+ gradient.

A

epithelial cells

84
Q

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT – 1. SYMPORTER

A
  • Two substances are transported in the same direction across a plasma membrane.
  • One of the substance moves passively down its concentration gradient while the second substance uses ATP to move against its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane.
85
Q

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT– 2.ANTIPORTER

A
  • Two substances are transported across the membrane in opposite directions across the plasma membrane.
  • One of the substance moves passively down its concentration gradient while the second substance uses ATP to move against its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane.
86
Q

Uniport

A

A uniport can transport only a single molecule using the facilitated diffusion of glucose.

87
Q

Antiport

A

An antiport uses active transport to move two molecules in opposite
directions.

88
Q

Cotransport

A

Symport and Antiport

89
Q

Vesicle Formation

A

– moving things out.
– Transport of large molecules
– Requires energy
– Keeps the macromolecule contained
– Exocytosis - Vesicles form as a way to transport molecules out of a cell.

SUBSTANCES TRANSPORTED: Neurotransmitters, hormones
and digestive enzymes.

90
Q

What is Exocytosis of proteins?

A

Exocytosis of proteins is a process where cells transport proteins out of the cell by enclosing them in vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents into the extracellular space. This mechanism is essential for processes like hormone secretion, neurotransmitter release, and the export of enzymes.

91
Q

Endocytosis

A

Vesicles form as a way to transport molecules into a cell.

92
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Large,particulate matter (Bacteria, viruses, and aged or dead cells).

93
Q

Pinocytosis

A

Liquids and small particles dissolved in liquid.

94
Q

Receptor Mediated Endocytosis

A

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a specific process where ligand-receptor complexes on the cell surface trigger the inward folding of the membrane, forming a clathrin-coated pit. This pit then buds off to create a vesicle that contains the bound ligands, such as low-density lipoproteins (LDLs), vitamins, certain hormones, and antibodies.

95
Q

Pinocytosis - Most common form of endocytosis

A
  • Cell forms an invagination
  • Materials dissolve in water to be brought into cell
  • Called “Cell Drinking”
  • Ex. Intestinal cells, Kidney cells, Plant root cells
  • Movement of very specific molecules into the cell with the use of vesicles coated with the protein clathrin.
  • Coated pits are specific locations coated with clathrin and receptors. When specific molecules (ligands) bind to the receptors, then this stimulates the molecules to be engulfed into a coated vesicle.
  • Ex. Uptake of cholesterol (LDL) by animal cells
96
Q

Some ____________ have receptors on their surface to
recognize & take in hormones, cholesterol, etc.

A

integral proteins

97
Q

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Receptor-mediated endocytosis, a form of pinocytosis, ___________

A

provides a mechanism for the selective uptake of specific macromolecules.

98
Q

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

____________ are specialized regions of the plasma membrane where specific cell surface receptors are found.

A

Clathrin-coated pits

99
Q

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

__________, a membraneassociated GTP-binding protein, assists in the budding off of pits from the plasma membrane.

A

Dynamin

100
Q

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Clathrin assembles into a basketlike structure that
distorts the membrane, forming ________.

A

invaginated pits

101
Q

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Clathrin coated pits occupy about _________ of the surface area of plasma membranes.

A

1-2%

102
Q

Protein Trafficking in Endocytosis

Endosomes

A

are vesicles with tubular extensions, located at the periphery of the cell, that fuse with clathrin-coated vesicles which have shed their coats.

103
Q

Protein Trafficking in Endocytosis

An important feature of early endosomes is that they maintain an?

A

acidic internal pH as the result of the action of a membrane H+
pump.

104
Q

Protein Trafficking in Endocytosis

Recycling to the plasma membrane is the major fate of membrane proteins taken up by ________.

A

recepto rmediated endocytosis

105
Q

Protein Trafficking in Endocytosis

Ligands and membrane proteins destined for __________ are transported from early endosomes to late endosomes, which are located near the ______.

A

degradation in lysosomes
nucleus

106
Q

Protein Trafficking in Endocytosis

________ is a phenomenon where receptor ligand complexes are removed from the plasma membrane, thereby terminating the response of the cell to growth factor stimulation.

A

Receptor down-regulation

107
Q

Protein Trafficking in Endocytosis

________, which are phagosomes fused to lysosomes, contain lysosomal acid hydrolases that digest the ingested material.

A

Phagolysosomes

108
Q

Protein Trafficking in Endocytosis

The ________ by phagocytosis plays distinct roles in different kinds of cells.

A

ingestion of large particles

Cell and Molecular Biology (10 decks)

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