5.5 How are places created through placemaking processes? Flashcards
5.5 How are places created through placemaking processes?
Key idea ➡ Place is produced in a variety of ways at different scales.
How places are produced by a range of people
The world’s population reached 7 billion in 2011 and is expected to climb to between 9 and 10 billion by 2050. Urban places are at the forefront of this growth but increasing interconnection between places means that many rural places will also experience significant growth.
The role of governments and other organisations in placemaking
It has been suggested that between 60% and 80% of all data now includes a locational component. The explosion in the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) has meant that more and more people and governments are using geography as part of their work.
Geographical Information Systems
Can be denoted as GIS. A set of computer tools used to capture, store, transform, analyze, and display geographic data.
The attraction of Foreign Direct Investment
With the growth of transnational corporations (TNCs) in all sectors of the economy, governments around the globe have been keen to encourage inward investment by TNCs.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has increased enormously since 1980 but with the ebbs and flows depending on the health of the global, regional (e.g. EU) or national economies.
Transnational corporations
Can be denoted as TNC. A company that conducts research, operates factories, and sells products in many countries, not just where its headquarters or shareholders are located.
TNCs choice of locations
Many TNCs have considerable choice when identifying locations for investment. Sometimes described as ‘placeless’, TNCs and their operations are widely distributed across several countries.
Foreign Direct Investment
Can be denoted as FDI. Investment made by a foreign company in the economy of another country.
Sources of FDI
Most FDI flows of capital are from TNCs headquartered in ACs, such as Barclays, Sony and Nestlé. Over 60 per cent their investments are in other ACs. TNCs originating from EDCs and even LIDCs are having an increasing presence regionally, and in some cases globally. An example is Tata (an Indian-based TNC).
Hitachi Rail (Mini Case study)
Page 179.
How planners and architects make places - Architecture
Architecture can make an important contribution to placemaking through the design of individual buildings. This has been true across the centuries and continues today.
Statement from CABE - How planners and architects make places
‘An efficient planning system and a good spatial plan are essential to achieving high-quality places and good design.’ This statement was made by the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE) in 2009. CABE is part of the Design Council and provides advice on architecture, urban design and public space.
How planners and architects make places - Local Authorities
Local authorities in the UK maintain their own planning departments. They develop a Local Plan for their own local areas which includes elements of place such as industrial and housing developments, transport and amenities such as parks.
This strategy is important in placemaking as it sets the framework for new buildings or uses of land. The Royal Town Planning Institute guides all professional planners working in local authorities, architecture firms and property consultancies.
Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment
Can be denoted as CABE. The Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment was an executive non-departmental public body of the UK government, established in 1999. It is funded by Government.
How local community groups shape the place they live in
As has been identified in both Lympstone and Toxteth, local communities can have a significant influence in shaping places. As well as local political organisations such as councils, there are a whole host of groups whose activities go towards local place profiles.
Examples of local community groups that shape the place they live in
In some locations, residents’ associations have been in existence since the end of the 19th century. However, the majority came into existence in the 1920s and 1930s.
Residents’ associations
A group of residents or property owners who advocate for or organize activities within a neighborhood. An association may have elected leaders and voluntary dues.
Rebranding
Developments aimed at changing negative perceptions of a place making it more attractive to investment.
Why places rebrand
All places have an image. This image depends upon how people perceive a place. A number of separate images then come together to form a collective view of a particular place.
A place’s brand is the popular image the place has acquired and by which it is generally recognised. It includes both objective aspects, such as its location but also subjective ones such as its atmosphere, safety or level of economic activity. If a place has acquired a negative brand then rebranding can be attempted.
Rebranding in history
Rebranding is not a new phenomenon. After the Great Fire of London in 1666, Sir Christoper Wren, the foremost architect of the day, drew up a master plan which involved ridding the city of its medieval narrow streets and alleys.
His vision was of a number of large piazzas (squares) linked in a geometric manner by wide, long boulevards.
Key elements of rebranding
Brand: The city (and/or an area within the city)
-Brand artefact
-Brand essence
-Brandscape
Brand artefact (Key elements of rebranding)
The physical environment.
-Create a new environment.
-Reuse the existing environment.
-Remove the old environment.
Brand essence (Key elements of rebranding)
People’s experience of the brand.
-Living in the city.
-Working in the city.
-Visiting the city.
-Talking about the city.
Brandscape (Key elements of rebranding)
Comparison with competitor cities.
-Local.
-Regional.
-National.
-International.
Strategies for rebranding a place
-Market-led
-Top-down
-Flagship development
-Legacy
-Events or themes
Market-led (Strategies for rebranding a place)
Involves private investors aiming to make a profit. Typically includes property developers, builders and business owners, for example running restaurants, wine bars or retailing. Gentrification is typical of this strategy such as in Islington, London or Le Marais, Paris.
Top-down (Strategies for rebranding a place)
Involves large-scale organisations such as local authorities, especially their planning departments, development agencies and private investors such as insurance and pension fund managers.
Several former dockland areas such as Salford Quays, Manchester and Inner Harbor, Baltimore are examples.
Flagship development (Strategies for rebranding a place)
Large scale, one-off property projects with distinctive architecture. They act as a catalyst to attract further investment and regeneration. The Millennium Stadium, Cardiff and The Waterfront, Belfast are examples.
Legacy (Strategies for rebranding a place)
Following international sporting events which brought investment and regeneration to place. Examples include the Olympics in Barcelona (1992) and London (2012) and the Commonwealth Games, Manchester (2002).
Events or themes (Strategies for rebranding a place)
Major festivals such as those associated with the European Capital of Culture, Liverpool (2008) and Riga, Latvia (2014). This serves as a catalyst for the cultural development and the transformation of the city.
Consequently, the beneficial socio-economic development and impact for the chosen city are now also considered in determining the chosen cities.
Elements involved in the rebranding process
-Architecture
-Heritage use
-Retail
-Art
-Sport
-Food
Architecture (Elements involved in the rebranding process)
Nearly always plays a role and can be used to reinforce a particular heritage look or to promote the place as modern and forward looking.
Examples include the Covent Garden area in central London for the re-use of existing buildings or the Pompidou Centre in Paris for the transforming effect of a radical design.
Architecture is not just about the look of a place, it can also alter how people use a place and thus change its image.
Heritage use (Elements involved in the rebranding process)
Nearly always plays a role and can revitalise a place. The Wessex Tourist Board has based much of its rebranding of this rural region (covering parts of Dorset, Somerset and Wiltshire) on the rich heritage of the region: ancient monuments such as Avebury and Stonehenge, Saxon history including Alfred the Great, the myths and legends surrounding King Arthur and Glastonbury.
Retail (Elements involved in the rebranding process)
With the growth in the importance of consumer spending and the increased emphasis given to the ‘shopping experience’, rebranding can be aided by retail developments.
Examples - Retail (Elements involved in the rebranding process)
The flagship Selfridges store opened in 2003 has become an icon of the rebranding of central Birmingham. Further developments have followed in the area such as the rebuilding of New Street Station and the Bull Ring. Dubai has sought to raise its international profile through the shopping experience it offers.
Art (Elements involved in the rebranding process)
Both through art galleries and art events. Galleries such as the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao and the Tate Gallery in St Ives, Cornwall have been pivotal in the rebranding of these places.
Art events such as the Edinburgh and Glastonbury Festivals contribute both economically and culturally to the image of the place where they are based.
Sport (Elements involved in the rebranding process)
Major international sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, a World Cup or a Formula 1 Grand Prix, can be the catalyst that helps kick-start rebranding. Bahrain has been very keen to establish itself on the F1 list of races as part of the rebranding of the place as a major hub at the global scale.
Food (Elements involved in the rebranding process)
Some places have developed a reputation of high-quality food to help in their rebranding. Ludlow, a small market town in Shropshire, has become known as ‘the food town’. It has several restaurants with international reputations for fine dining, many specialist food shops and food festivals.
Gentrification
A process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area.
People and groups involved in rebranding
Rebranding is such a diverse process that many different people, organisations and occupations can be involved. The terms players and stakeholders are used to summarise the whole range of people involved in, and affected by, a process such as rebranding.
Key players - People and groups involved in rebranding
Key players are those involved in funding it. Governments of various scales and their directly funded organisations, such as tourist boards and planning departments, play significant roles.
Players
Individuals and groups who are interested in and affected by a decision-making process.
Stakeholders
All the people who stand to gain or lose in the rebranding process.
EU’s European Regional Development Fund
Can be denoted as ERDF. The ERDF aims to strengthen economic and social cohesion in the European Union by correcting imbalances between its regions.
Rebranding can be a contested process
Rebranding often brings changes to the character of a place, something that is not always welcomed by certain groups, particularly local residents, due to different perspectives on what should be changed and how change should proceed.
Change in the character of a place
Gentrification brings about a socio-economic change as wealthier people move into a neighbourhood. Their relatively large disposable incomes lead to changes in the types of local services available.
Examples of Change in the character of a place
Newsagents, corner shops and hardware shops can be displaced by restaurants, wine bars and specialist shops, such as boutique clothes and shoe shops.
Rising property prices invariably accompany gentrification, forcing poorer residents, who cannot afford the increased rents and prices of goods and services, to move out.
Favouring one group over another
Some players/stakeholders benefit more than others from rebranding. When Liverpool one (a large shopping centre in inner Liverpool) was developed, many local residents felt that regeneration would be of little benefit to them.
The rebranding was felt to be more suitable for entrepreneurs and those living in the suburbs or outside Liverpool.
Difference in priorities
Development agencies may have different priorities from local residents. Liverpool Vision, the urban regeneration body working in inner Liverpool, employed cheaper foreign labour rather than local people.
It wanted to attract organisations and individuals from outside the local area, believing that in this way it would help change Liverpool’s negative image. However established residents and existing owners of shops, offices and leisure facilities felt they were being ignored in the rebranding process.
Assessing the success of rebranding - Categories
-Economic - to improve wealth creation, employment and incomes.
-Social - to improve the quality of life of residents.
-Environmental - To improve the physical characteristics of the place.
Barcelona (Case study)
Pages 184-187.
