4B. Last years before Independence

Question 1

Which factors influenced the background of disorder for the 1946 elections?

Answer 1

• British mishandling of INA fighters
• Demobilisation of 7 million Indians from armed services.
• Droughts threatening famine in Southern India
• Mutinies in of 20,000 sailors and their officers in February 1946

Question 2

Why were elections called in the years 1945-6?

Answer 2

The new Labour government’s India Committee, dominated by Sir Stafford Cripps, recommended that elections should be held to allow Indians to choose their own representatives, to demonstrate Indian opinion and pave the way to a final settlement.

Question 3

How did the British mishandling of INA fighters contribute to the unrest behind the 1946 elections?

Answer 3

Congress called for the immediate release of the INA POWs, arguing that, no matter how misguided, they had been fighting for the freedom of India. The majority of Indians shared this view.

Instead, the British selected a sample of senior INA officers, deliberately selecting a Hindu, a Muslim, and a Sikh, and charged them with waging war against the Crown.

• This united the three communities against the British

Although the senior officers were sentenced to transportation for life, the three officers were released due to fear of reprisals from the Indian army

Question 4

How did demobilisation contribute to the unrest behind the 1946 elections?

Answer 4

7 million Indians were being demobilised from the armed services and were looking for work in industries already laying off workers as they returned to peacetime production levels

This increased unemployment within India

Question 5

How did mutiny in February 1946 contribute to the unrest behind the 1946 elections?

Answer 5

Elements within the Indian army mutinied in February 1946, as did 20,000 sailors and their officers in the Indian navy based in Bombay, Calcutta and Karachi.

Congress persuaded the mutineers to surrender, angering many of their supporters, however both Congress and the ML saw more advantage in working with the British at this point.

Question 6

What were the results of the 1946 elections?

Answer 6

• Congress won 90% of all available seats

However, the ML won:

• 75% of all Muslim votes,
• 90% of all seats in the provinces reserved for Muslims
• all 30 seats reserved for Muslims in the central assembly.

The only province where Congress-ML polarisation was not clear was in the Punjab, where a non-Muslim coalition took control even though the ML polled the largest number of voters

Question 7

What did the results of the 1946 elections indicate?

Answer 7

• ML was powerful and supported by large proportion of Muslim population - could not be ignored
• Muslims in Muslim minority states voted strongly for ML - may move to Pakistan if established, so demonstrated support for separate state.

Question 8

When did the Cabinet Mission sent by Attlee arive in India?

Answer 8

24th March 1946

Question 9

What were the aims of the Cabinet Mission?

Answer 9

• Maintain a united India, which would play a key role in Britain’s plans for security in Asia
• ↑ Ruled out separate Pakistan, but did not preclude the existence of separate Muslim-dominated states within Hindu-dominated India
• Create positive desire for speedy transfer of power, to reverse embarrassing failure of 1942 Cripps Mission and absolve Britain of responsibility for India

Question 10

What did the Cabinet Mission do in India?

Answer 10

The Mission stayed in India for more than three months, determined to break the deadlock between Congress and the Muslim League:

Key Indian politicians (Gandhi, Jinnah, etc.) were interviewed to clarify their positions:

• Gandhi argued for power to be handed directly to Congress
• Jinnah knew that a separate Pakistan would only arise from a British decision, rather than Hindu-dominated Congress.

Siks and Indian Princes were ignored

Question 11

When was the 2nd Simla Conference arranged?

Answer 11

May 1946

Question 12

What was the May 1946 Second Simla Conference?

Answer 12

Congress and the Muslim League were each invited to send four representatives each.

Purpose of Conference was work through Cabinet Mission proposals, creating a three-tier structure within a united India. Partition was not acceptable.

Question 13

What was proposed at the May 1946 Second Simla Conference?

Answer 13

• An All-India Union, responsible for defence, foreign policy and internal communication, together with powers to raise finances to fund these elements, governed by an executive and a legislature
• Three clusters of provincial governments, segregated by proportion of Muslim population
• Each provincial group would elect its own government to be responsible for the day-to-day running of provincial affairs
• The All-India Union would comprise of elected representatives from each provincial groups
• Regional groups could, after a period of time and a plebiscite, secede and become independent states

• As a fall-back option, the Mission suggested the creation of two separate states of Hindustan and Pakistan

Question 14

According to the Second Simla Conference, which states would be included in each group of provincial governments?

Answer 14

Group 1: Congress’s Hindu heartland: of

• Madras
• Bombay
• Orissa
• United and Central Provinces

Group 2: Muslim and predominantly Muslim areas: of

• Baluchistan
• North-West Frontier Province
• Sind
• Punjab

Group 3: Bengal and Assam, where the balance of religions was slightly in favour of Muslims

Question 15

Why did the May 1946 Second Simla Conference fail?

Answer 15

Congress would agree neither to the fall-back propositon of separate states nor the original propositon of provincial groups.

Question 16

What was announced in the 1946 May Statement?

Answer 16

The Cabinet Mission would create a Consituent Assembly, comprising of representatives from the 11 British provinces, who would draft a constitution for a single Indian state with regional groupings.

Question 17

What were the reactions to the 1946 May Statement?

Answer 17

• Congress refused to accept the statement
• Jinnah agreed to the statement

Question 18

How did the Cabinet Mission react to Congress’ rejection of the May Statement?

Answer 18

The Cabinet Mission announced they would set up an interim government to run India before the proposals of the Constituent Assembly could be put into effect. This interim government would comprise solely of Indians, plus the Viceroy.

Question 19

How did the plan for an interim government before the Constituent Assembly meet issues?

Answer 19

Jinnah insisted that the Muslim League had to select Muslim members, whereas Congress asserted that they would choose all the members of the interim government, including Muslims.

Question 20

How was the suggestion of the Second Simla Conference finally agreed upon?

Answer 20

After the failure to establish who would choose members of the Interim government, Congress decided to accept the proposals of the Second Simla Conference on the basis that individual states, and not state groups, could opt out of a united India.

• This would fragment the formation of any future Pakistan

Cripps declined to rule out this interpretation, to the anger of Wavell and Jinnah

Question 21

When was Direct Action Day?

Answer 21

16th August 1946

Question 22

When and how did Jinnah decide on Direct Action Day

Answer 22

Outraged at what he saw as the duplicity of both Congress and the Raj, Jinnah convened his council of the League in Bombay on 27th July 1946 and repudiated all agreements made with the Cabinet Mission.

Two days later, he called for a universal Muslim hartal and urged all Muslims to prepare for a day of Direct Action on 16th August 1946.

Question 23

How did the Raj limited in its ability to prevent communal violence such as Direct Action Day?

Answer 23

Commander-in-Chief Auchinleck, having made discreet enquiries among his Indian officers and finding them to be loyal to their own concept of India, privately warned Viceroy Wavell that he could not envisage Hindu firing at Hindu and Muslim shooting Muslim in any ensuing conflict.

Wavell understood that, with Congress controlling 3/4 of India, police loyalty would be swayed towards those who would inherit power and control.

Question 24

What happened on 16th August 1946?

Answer 24

Police in Calcutta were ordered by the Muslim League to take a special holiday, leaving the streets open to the mob.

Within 72 hours:

• More than 5000 were killed
• At least 20,000 were seriously injured
• 100,000 residents were made homeless

Question 25

How did Wavell find the reactions of political leaders in India to Direct Action Day?

Answer 25

• Wavell appealed to Congress and the Muslim League to end the communal violence but was ignored.
• He was genuinely appalled when Gandhi remarked that if India wanted a bloodbath, she could have it.
• In a similar tone, Jinnah told Wavell that Pakistan was worth the sacrifice of ten million Muslims.

Question 26

How did Congress remove Wavell as Viceroy after Direct Action Day?

Answer 26

Despite their numerical strength, Congress began working outside formal negotiations, with Gandhi briefing Congress’ representative in London to have private and secret negotiations with Attlee.

In one such conversation, Congress pressed for the removal of Wavell as Viceroy, to which Attlee agreed.

Wavell, hearing of this, felt undermined by Congress and by the Labour government.

Question 27

What were the outcomes of Direct Action Day?

Answer 27

• Trust between differing communities was lost
• Potential for compromise between their leaders was gone
• The likelihood of a possible partition along religious lines increased significantly

Question 28

When was the interim government formed?

Answer 28

Nehru sworn in as prime minister of the interim government on 2nd September 1946.

Question 29

How was British power severely limited within the interim government under Nehru?

Answer 29

Although the viceroy was still nominally responsible for the governance of India, in reality, he had to carry out the decisions of his Indian ministers and Executive Council, effectively carrying out the wishes of Congress.

Nehru took responsibility for foreign affairs and Sardar Patel, Congress’ general secretary, took on responsibility for home affairs. Patel insisted that intelligence reports were sent directly to Congress administration, effectively sidelining the viceroy.

Question 30

How did the Muslim League participate in the interim government under Nehru?

Answer 30

• Wavell managed to persuade a reluctant Jinnah to join the interim government. Refusing to join the Executive Council because of Nehru’s presence, Jinnah send Liaquat Ali Khan instead.
• Hoping to give the Muslim League within the government, Wavell proposed that the League should become responsible for home affairs instead of Sardar Patel.

When Congress threatened to bring down the whole interim government if this happened, Jinnah contented himself with the post of finance minister

Question 31

What were the details of Wavell’s secret evacuation plan?

Answer 31

• All British civilians and their families would be moved to heavily protected safe zones near the coast, to be evacuated in an orderly way from Calcutta and Karachi.
• Commander-in-Chief Auchinleck would withdraw all British troops in a similarly orderly manner.

Attlee refused to consider this plan, and instead considered replacing Wavell as viceroy.

Question 32

When did the Constituent Assembly meet?

Answer 32

7 December 1946 - it was never to complete its task

Question 33

When was Wavell replaced?

Answer 33

31 January 1947

Question 34

What did Attlee announce in February 1947 to the House of Commons?

Answer 34

The British Government was to transfer power to Indian hands no later than by 30 June 1948

Question 35

What was the brief given to Mountbatten by Attlee and the British Government as he replaced Wavell?

Answer 35

• Partition was to be avoided
• If Congress and the ML could not agree to terms by the deadline of 30th June 1848, give power to the existing provincial governments and leave.

Question 36

What was Mountbatten’s key strength?

Answer 36

Very different from previous viceroys:

• Flamboyant
• Left-wing
• Determined to be seen as a man of action

Question 37

How successful was Mountbatten’s charm offensive?

Answer 37

• Cordial relations quickly achieved between Mountbatten and Gandhi, Nehru and other Congress leaders, increased by Lady Mountbatten’s infatuation with Nehru
• Frosty relations with Jinnah established - established Jinnah’s view that Mountbatten had strong pro-Congress sympathies.

Question 38

How did Mountbatten start his service as Viceroy?

Answer 38

Spent his first 4 weeks in India consulting with Indian ministers, politicians and his own staff - convinced him that partition was the only solution.

Question 39

How did rioting convince Mountbatten that partition was the only solution?

Answer 39

Riots and violence broke out in the Punjab in March 1947 after the resignation of the coalition* government leader, Khizr Hayat Khan.

In the North West Frontier Province, the ML laucned a ciivil disobedience campaign of their own against Congress.

• of Sikhs, Hindus and non-League Muslims in a 54% Muslim province

Question 40

What actions did Gandhi take to reduce communal violence in India, and how successful were they?

Answer 40

• Gandhi attempted to quell the communal violence through a long walk through the Noakhali and Tiperah districts of East Bengal.
• He continued to communicate directly to the masses to explain what politicians were doing
• He gave attention to Bihar, where Hindus were killing Muslims on a large scale

However, he had become an anachronistic figure, and was sidelined in the search for an acceptable formula for independence

Question 41

How did Nehru react to Plan Balkan?

Answer 41

Plan Balkan stated that Indian states and provinces could decide their own future

Nehru considered this a recipe for anarchy, which he expressed to Mountbatten when shown the plan in an informal private meeting*.

He stated that Congress would reject the plan as it would both weaken India and the Congress party itself.

*this example demonstrates Mountbatten’s partiality towards Nehru - Jinnah was not shown this plan

Question 42

What were Jinnahs priorities for Pakistan?

Answer 42

• Pakistan must contain an undivided Punjab and Bengal
• Jinnah would not accept any plan that would lead to an impoverished Pakistan

Question 43

How was the Raj quickly losing control of India by May 1947?

Answer 43

• Vast areas of NW India were in a state of riot and rebellion
• The Indian Civil Service, which had maintained Indian administration during the Raj, was reduced to a skeleton staff of mainly Indians, to whom friends and relations looked for patronage
• Attlee’s declaration that the British would be out of India by July 1948 had led to conflict in mixed Hindu and Muslim states such as the Punjab.
• The government had lost all forms of control over Bihar

Question 44

Why was Jinnah in a hurry to carry out Partition?

Answer 44

Jinnah’s persistent cough and physical weakness were diagnosed as symptoms of tuberculosis - a fatal disease at the time.

Question 45

How did Mountbatten announce his plan for Partition?

Answer 45

18 May 1947 - Mountbatten carried his plan for Partition to London for government and parliamentary approval.

15 July 1947 - announced in Houses of Commons that, in precisely one month’s time, two separate dominions of India and Pakistan would be created on the Indian subcontinent.

Question 46

What were the features of the Boundary Commission?

Answer 46

• Comprised of equal numbers of Hindus and Muslim judges (chosen by Congress and the Muslim League)
• Chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a legal expert, who was impartial due to his lack of experience in India
• Given just 5 weeks to complete partition, using out-of-date maps, anecdotal stories of land ownership and old boundary charts

Question 47

How did Mountbatten’s partiality affect the India-Pakistan boundary?

Answer 47

Mountbatten consistently leaked details over the boundary to Nehru, who would then demand that certain areas be included in India and not Pakistan e.g. Firozpur.

• Personal dislike of Jinnah and warm relationship with Nehru
• Did not believe Pakistan will last.

Question 48

How had the princely states supported the Raj in WW2?

Answer 48

Collectively, the princes:

• bought 180 million rupees of war bonds
• gave 300,000 volunteers to Indian armed forces

Individually:

• the Maharaja of Travancore had bought the Royal Indian Navy an armed patrol boat
• the Nizam of Hyderabad bought a whole squadron of aeroplanes
• the Maharaja of Kashmir contributed 18 field ambulances

Question 49

How did Conrad Corfield seek to maintain the princely states?

Answer 49

Princes largely ignored by new political settlement, and threatened by Congress who wished to remove their powers.

Conrad Corfield, head of India’s Political Department, sympathised with the princes and persuaded Secretary of State for India, Lord Listowel, to agree that neither India nor Pakistan would inherit the princely states.

After this, Corfield burned 4 tonnes of political documents listing the misdemeanours of the princes, which Congress would otherwise use for political blackmail.

Nehru was furious at Corfield’s manoeuvrings, and persuaded Mountbatten to have him dismissed, which he did.

Question 50

How did Mountbatten resolve the contention over the princely states?

Answer 50

Mountbatten called a conference of the princes on 25th July, where he explained that by the 15th August, they would either have to join India or Pakistan, depending on which state was nearer.

By shamelessly exploiting his royal connections and manipulating the princes’ loyalties and fears, Mountbatten managed to make every single prince agree to join either India or Pakistan.

Question 51

How were the assets of British India divided between India and Pakistan?

Answer 51

All assets and liabilities were divided by the proportion of 82.5% for India, and 17.5% for Pakistan.

Question 52

How did the British withdraw from India?

Answer 52

Military withdrawal from August 1947-mid 1948

Miniscule force of 50,000 British troops dispatched to bring order along new frontiers, but these remained in their barracks, unable to stop the widespread violence caused by the mass migrations to fit partition.

Government instructions were that British troops should only protect European lives.

Question 53

When did India become independent?

Answer 53

15th August 1947