1A. WW1-WW2

Question 1

How did WW1 impact US attitudes towards isolationism?

Answer 1

• Many Americans believed that involvement in WW1 was a mistake - Woodrow Wilson took the USA into war in 1917 despite campaigning to keep out of it.
• Specifically, many disliked the way in which Woodrow Wilson continued to try to involve the USA in European affairs once the war was over.

Question 2

How did WW1 affect the US economy?

Answer 2

The economy of the USA was boosted by the war, but a post-war depression and spike in unemployment followed:

• In 1919, 950,000 people were unemployed
• By 1921, this had increased to 5 million

Question 3

How did the post-WW1 depression impact US society?

Answer 3

The post-WW1 depression led to discontent as well as riots, strikes and protests.

Question 4

What did President Harding (elected 1921) set out to achieve in his ‘return to normalcy’?

Answer 4

In general, US policy would be shifted towards the interests of the USA alone.
This meant:

• Balancing the government’s books
• Reduced taxation on Americans (set high for the war)
• Introduce tariffs to protect US trade and industry
• Provide countrywide radio (to boost US industry and national communication)

He also mentioned that there should be a committee set up to study the ‘race question’ and how best to solve it.

Question 5

How was isolation understood by American society?

Answer 5

Generally speaking, isolationism was understood to mean:

• Returning of focus to the USA - should be ‘supportive’ of other nations but not ‘entangled’ with them.
• Introducing tariffs to dissuade imports and favour US businesses
• No colonial expansion
• Not joining the League of Nations
• Cutting back on numbers of immigrants

Question 6

Which immigration acts coincided with US isolationism?

Answer 6

1921 Emergency Quota Act - restricted immigration to 357,000 people a year

1924 Johnson-Reed Immigration Act revised this number ↑ to 150,000.

This act ↑ was confirmed by the 1929 National Origins Formula

Question 7

How did Congress confirm the USA’s isolationism from Europe in the event of war?

Answer 7

Between 1935-39, Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts which restricted the help the USA could give to other countries in the event of war

Question 8

Which elements of US foreign policy contradicted isolationism?

Answer 8

• The USA helped Europe rebuild economically after WW1
• The USA brokered the Washington Conference of 1921-22 which set limits on national navies.

Question 9

How did Woodrow Wilson increase the role of the President?

How well was this recieved?

Answer 9

• He took the USA to war despite campaigning to keep out of it
• He didn’t consult Congress about promoting the League of Nations
• He was seen to be by drafting bills and introducing them to Congress himself
• He believed that Presidents should be involved in law-making.
• He expected the leader of the Democrats in the House of Representatives to speak for him, and for the House to fall in line with his wishes.

These were unpopular = threatening the separation of powers principle

Question 10

What did lasseiz-faire entail?

Answer 10

Lasseiz-faire policies entailed:

• A smaller national government with less interference in the economy or social issues.
• Less federal spending - government should keep its own spending under control rather than help those who were failing
• Less willingness to control wages, working hours or prices.

Question 11

How did Harding manage the presidency?
What were his failings?

Answer 11

Harding generally abstained from drafting new laws or increasing the USA’s foreign affairs

Unfortunately, Harding, though not corrupt himself, gave positions to friends that were. Several of these appointees exploited their positions for wealth, reducing confidence in the administration.

Question 12

How did Calvin Coolidge manage the presidency?

Answer 12

Coolidge (Harding’s vice-president) continued much in the same way as Harding, except that he combined lasseiz-faire policies with a dignity and morality which restored confidence in the administration after the corruption of Harding’s appointees.

Coolidge continued the 1920s boom period, maintaining a small government which exerted less influence on the legislative bodies e.g. Congress.

Question 13

How did Herbert Hoover manage the Presidency at the beginning of his term?

Answer 13

Herbert Hoover gave the Republican lasseiz-faire policy a spin, encouraging people to take responsibility for themselves.

He formulated these ideas in the pamphlet American Individualism in 1922, which he developed in his 1928 election campaign into the theory of ‘rugged individualism’.

Question 14

What were the key tenets of ‘rugged individualism’?

Answer 14

• All people (incl. the poor and homeless) were weakened by government support because it sapped their self-reliance.
• Goverment would not interfere to help either the failing nor the successful.
• Business was free to run as fit, even if they exploited the workforce.
• Working hours, pay or working conditions would be left unmanaged, and the bank interest on mortgages and loans would not be fixed.
• The USA should restrict immigration - unlimited immigration worsened rising unemployment and did not bring wealth to the UK

Question 15

Which events formed the foundation for the First Red Scare (1919-20)?

Answer 15

• The Tsar in Russia was overthrown in 1917 by the Bolsheviks, leading to civil war.
• The Communist Party of the USA (CPUSA) and the Communist Labour Party of America (CLP) were founded.
• Increased strikes followed over better wages, hours and working conditions, as workers had not been allowed to strike during WW1.
• Increased anarchist and communist activity, through pamphlets and occasional bombing.

Question 16

How significant was the post-war strike action in the USA?

Answer 16

In 1919, there were more than 3,600 strikes, with 1/4 workers (4 million people on strike

21 January 1919 - 35,000 shipyard workers went on strike in Seattle. By 6th February, this escalated to a general strike of 60,000.

Question 17

How many radical bombings were there in 1919?

Answer 17

• 28 April 1919 - US post office discovers 36 bombs addressed to various state officials
• 2 June 1919 - Bombs explode in 8 cities - public official targeted incl. new Attorney General Mitchell Palmer
• 9 September 1919 - Bombs explode in various cities

Question 18

What were the effects of ‘red hunting’ during the First Red Scare?

Answer 18

• Some businesses sacked employees they suspected of left-wing views
• People began to suspect their neighbours, and worried over being suspected themselves
• People were no longer free to express left-wing views
• Some parts of the country saw considerable violence from groups such as the Klu Klux Klan, which targed all groups they suspected of being ‘Un-American’.

Question 19

What were the long-term impacts of the First Red Scare, 1919-1920?

Answer 19

After 1920, the government, media and general population began to react to communism in a more balanced way:

• Of the thousands of people arrested as ‘suspicious’, only 556 were deported once their cases were considered.
• Attorney General Palmer’s prediction of a ‘Red revolution’ on 1st May 1920 failed to occur

However, anti-communist sentiment never completely vanished.

Question 20

What was the Bonus Army?

Answer 20

In 1924, the US government gave those who had fought in WW1 a bonus for their service calculated according to their years of service:

• Veterans owed just $50 were paid immediately
• The rest of the money went into a fund to be paid in 1945

As the Depression bit, many veterans asked for their money early - many were unemployed and / or homeless.

In June 1932, they marched on Washington to make their demands in person, camping in various sites across the city in numbers estimating from 150,000 to 200,000 people.

Question 21

How did Hoover’s handling of the Bonus Army decrease faith in his presidency?

Answer 21

Police had initially tried to break up the camps, with little success and some violence on both sides.

On 28th July, troops were sent in with tear gas, bayonets, cavalry and even tanks and machine guns (though these were not used) to disperse the camps.

A report wsa published later suggesting that many in the camps were communist agitators and criminals, in an attempt to make the handling seem less blameworthy. Despite this, Hoover’s handling of the Bonus Marchers caused him to lose a significant amount of popularity.

Question 22

Which factors suggest that Hoover did little to control the Depression?

Answer 22

• He believed in ‘voluntarism’ and the role of private charities in handling relief for the Depression, and believed that economic relief was a local responsibility
• He allowed Congress to pass the Hawley-Smoot Tariff in 1930 which rose tariffs by 30%
• He did not meet the demands of the Bonus Marchers, instead dispersing the protest with violence.

Question 23

What did Hoover set up to manage the Great Depression upon its outbreak in 1929-30?

Answer 23

• 1929 - Agricultural Marketing Act: set up a Federal Farm Board that could buy up key crops to stablilise prices
• 1930 - Committee for Unemployment Relief: to coordinate, and advise on state efforts for the unemployed
• 1930 - President’s Emergency Committee for Employment: to find work for the unemployed and persuade big business to create more jobs

Question 24

What dod Hoover implement to manage the Great Depression between 1931-2?

Answer 24

• 1931 - National Credit Corporation (NCC) funded by healthy banks and businesses to help failing ones; started with a budget of $500 million but had only lent $10 million by end of year.
• January 1932 - Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) set up with $300 million to lend to states for relief projects
• July 1932 - RFC lending extended to farmers and public works
• July 1932 - Federal Home Loan Bank Act has a federal fund to help those in trouble with mortgages.

Question 25

How did Hoover’s presidential style change during his presidency?

Answer 25

• He realised that lasseiz-faire was not working, but initially believed that the answer was for private charities set up by businesses and the wealthy to intervene, encouraged by the government - ‘voluntarism’
• From 1930-2, he moved towards giving advice, then funding, to states,but eventually resorted to passing laws through Congress to give direct federal help.
• However, many of his federal measures were rejected by Congress, and his direct style of management became unpopular.

Question 26

How much did Hoover spend in the last year of his presidency?

Answer 26

In the last year of his presidency, Hoover spent over $5 billion, recieving only $2 billion that year.

Question 27

Who did the public blame for the Depression?

Answer 27

Though the Depression was a natural and emerging consequence of the extremes of the 1920’s boom, the blame was laid on Hoover’s shoulders.

The shanty towns of homeless people that sprang up around many cities were named ‘Hoovervilles’ after him.

Question 28

How did voters swing towards the Democrats during Hoover’s presidency?

Answer 28

• Since 1921, the Republicans had a majority in both the Senate and House. However, in 1931, the Democrats had a majority in the House and gained seats in the Senate.
• In 1928, Hoover had campaigned under the slogan of ‘a chicken in every pot’ and even stated that the Republicans were the poor man’s party. This did not reflect the reality of the Depression.
• Hoover was becoming unpopular with some Republicans who disliked his efforts to end the Depression as a step away from ‘rugged individualism’.

Question 29

Why was Roosevelt successful in the presidential campaign?

Answer 29

• In the 1932 election, he offered Americans a ‘New Deal’ with the election song ‘Happy Days Are Here Again’ which promoted optimism.
• He was an excellent communicator and had experience from being the Governor of New York
• His witty campaign pointed to Hoover’s Republican campaign as being led by the four Horsemen of the Apocalypse: ‘Destruction, Despair, Delay, Doubt’
• Hoover, in comparison, had none of Roosevelt’s vitality or confidence.

Question 30

How successful were the Republicans in the 1932 and 1936 elections?

Answer 30

In 1932 elections:

• More than 40 million Americans turned out to vote
• The Republicans only won 6 states

In the 1936 presidential election, the Republicans only won 2 states!

Question 31

What were the key tenets of New Deal thinking?

Answer 31

• Government was responsible for the welfare of the people - contrast to ‘rugged individualism’
• Stressed the importance of rapid, national action in order to bring about change

This second point included the takeover of some policymaking that was consitutionally under state authority:

Arguably, this was not so different by Hoover’s thinking by 1932

Question 32

How did Roosevelt justify the federal takeover of areas of policymaking constitutionally under state authority?

Answer 32

• This was justified by ‘war rhetoric’ which suggested that these changes would be temporary
• Some projects, e.g. development of Tennesee Valley (over 7 different states) were only possible with a federal agency coordinating activity in several states - Alphabe Agencies

Question 33

Which Alphabet Agencies did Roosevelt establish?

Answer 33

• National Recovery Administration (NRA)
• Agricultural Adjustment Agency (AAA)

There were also other agencies to provide work and help different sections of society.

Question 34

What did the National Recovery Administration (NRA) do?
How were businesses treated?

Answer 34

The National Recovery Administration (NRA) set up and enforced codes of practice for businesses, including setting working hours and a minimum wage.

Businesses could choose not to join the NRA, but the public was incentivised to support businesses that displayed the NRA symbol of a blue eagle in their windows, so non-NRA businesses lost out through loss of custom.

Question 35

What did the Agricultural Adjustment Agency (AAA) do?

Answer 35

The Agricultural Adjustment Agency (AAA) regulated major crops such as wheat, cotton and milk. It bought up surplus crops, and subsidised farmers to grow less of crops that were being overproduced

Question 36

How centralised were agencies established by Roosevelt?

Answer 36

Agencies established by Roosevelt provided their help on a state-by-state basis and, theoretically devolved power to states. However, they were all accountable to federal agencies that provided funding.

Question 37

How did Roosevelt change the role of the Presidency?

Answer 37

• Significantly increased White House staff, creating a separate Executive Office of the President
• Increased the number of bills drafted and used Executive Orders to pus them through Congress (designed for emergencies)
• Fireside chats - radio broadcasts used to explain policy
• ‘Off the record’ press interviews given twice a week with selected reporters at the White House, to keep press informed and on-side
• Madd media utilisation to remain popular and connected - recieved thousands of letters asking for help and giving thanks.

Question 38

Who opposed Roosevelt?

Answer 38

• Wealthy people. businessmen and republicans disliked his policies
• Republicans and some Democrats disliked his enlargening of the powers of the President
• Supreme Court ruled both the NRA and AAA in 1937 as unconstitutional
• In response to ↑, Roosevelt proposd to increase the number of Supreme Court judges to ‘pack the court’, adding a new judge for every one over 70 (6/9). This shocked even his most ardent of supporters and he was forced to abandon it

Question 39

What was Roosevelt’s legacy concerning the role of the President?

Answer 39

• President expected to be involved in forming of policy and legislation
• White House had many more federal boards and comittees, both to run the country as a traditional executive but also to discuss policy and draft laws.
• White House expected to tell the media and public about policy
• Government and president seen as responsible for welfare throughout the country

Question 40

What was the reaction of the USA to the outbreak of WW2?

Answer 40

• Stated in fireside chat that America was to remain neutral, but could not expect all citizens to remain neutral - no punishment from Neutrality Acts for fighting abroad
• US economy began preparing for wartime production, even whilst neutral.
• Goods supplied to Allies by ‘lend-lease scheme’ (circumventing 1935-39 Neutrality Acts) formalised as March 1941 Lend-Lease Act

By the end of the war, the value of lend-lease supplies was about $51 billion
- Destroyers-for-bases deal allowed Roosevelt to give the British 50 naval destroyers in exchange for use of bases in British-held countries

Question 41

When did the USA declare war?

Answer 41

8 December 1941, after Japanese allies of Germany bombed US fleet at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii

Question 42

What was the economic impact of WW2?

Answer 42

• Within a year of the outbreak of war, the USA had produced $47 billion of war goods
• Industry profits rose from $17 million in 1940 to $28 million in 1943
• Working week extended and wages rose
• Unemployment decreased as men joined the armed forces and women filled their places in farming and industry
• WW2 hauled USA out of Depression and into post-war boom