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PSYCHOLOGY > 4.1.3 ATTATCHMENT > Flashcards

4.1.3 ATTATCHMENT Flashcards

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1
Q

define the term attatchment

A

a close, two-way emotional bond between two individuals

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2
Q

what are the two specific caregiver-infant interaction

A

reciprocity
interactional synchrony

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3
Q

define reciprocity

A

when things are exchanged between people for mutual benefit

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4
Q

name the two stages of reciprocity in caregiver-infant interactions

A

alert phases - active involvement

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5
Q

describe alert phases as a stage of reciprocity in interactions

A

babies signal - eg make eye contact - to show they are ready for interaction
mothers pick up on this around 2/3 of the time
interaction becomes increasingly frequent from around 3 months

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6
Q

describe active involvement as a stage of reciprocity in interaction

A

babies and cares take on an active role in initiating interactions and take turns doing so
brazelton et al described this as a dance

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7
Q

who described reciprocity as ‘a dance’

A

brazelton et al

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8
Q

define the term synchrony

A

two or more people acting simultaneously

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9
Q

define interactional synchrony as a caregiver-infant interaction

A

caregivers and babies reflect both the actions and emotions of the other and do this in a coordinated way

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10
Q

describe isabella et als procedure

A

observed 30 mothers and babies together
assessed the degree of synchrony and the quality of the mother-baby attachment

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11
Q

describe isabella et als findings

A

high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-baby attatchment

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12
Q

describe meltzoff and moores procedure

A

observed interactional synchrony in infants
adult displayed one of three distinctive gestures
the babies response was filmed and labelled by independent observers

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13
Q

describe meltzoff and moore’s findings

A

babies expression and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults than what would have been expected from chance

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14
Q

what does feldman suggest

A

ideas like synchrony are just robust phenomena
they can be reliably observed
not useful in understanding development as it doesn’t tell us the purpose of these behaviours

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15
Q

outline the aim of schaffer and emerson’s study

A

to investigate the age at which children develop emotional intensity and towards whom it’s directed at

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16
Q

outline schaffer and emerson’s study

A

sample consists of 60 babies (31male29female)
working class families in glasgow
aged between 5-23 weeks
visited in own homes every month for first 12 months and then at 18 months
researchers interviewed mothers and asked questions about separation anxiety and stranger anxiety

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17
Q

outline schaffer and emerson’s findings

A

between 25-32 weeks: 50% of infants showed separation anxiety towards an adult
by 40 weeks: 80% of children had specific attatchment, 30% started to form multiple

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18
Q

what are schaffer’s stages of development

A

asocial stage
indiscriminate attatchment
specific attatchment
multiple attatchment

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19
Q

outline the asocial stage as a stage of development

A

babies recognise and form bonds, behave similarly towards objects and humans, prefer to be in the presence of humans

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20
Q

outline indiscriminate as a stage of attatchment

A

between 2-7 months, more social behaviour, prefer people to objects, recognise familiar people, accept comfort from any person and don’t show signs stranger or separation anxiety

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21
Q

outline specific attatchment as a stage of attachment

A

from around 7 months, babies display anxiety around strangers when separate from a particular adult
in 65% of cases this is the biological mother, or who participates most with reciprocity

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22
Q

outline multiple attatchment as a stage of attatchment

A

attatchment behaviour expands from one specific person to multiple, secondary attachments

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23
Q

what is the definition of a father

A

anyone who takes on the role of the main male caregiver
they do not need to be related biologically

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24
Q

what did grossman et al conclude about the role of the father

A

attachments to mothers are the most important in steering subsequent attachments, fathers have a different role

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25
Q

what did schaffer and emerson conclude about the role of the father

A

mothers are usually the first attachment, but strong attachments to fathers usually follow

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26
Q

what did tiffany field conclude about the role of the father

A

the quality of the attachment is more important than who the attachment is with

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27
Q

outline klaus grossman’s procedure

A

carried out a longitudinal study where attachment was studied into teens, looked at both parents behaviours and the relationship the quality of babies later attachments to others

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28
Q

outline klaus grossman’s findings

A

found attachment to mothers related to attachment in later life
suggests attachment to mothers is more important
found quality of fathers play relayed to quality of later attachments

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29
Q

what does grossman’s research suggest about fathers being the primary caregiver

A

suggests that a primary caregiver is the emotionally significant caregiver
as fathers roles are about play and stimulation rather than emotional attachment, this isn’t possible

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30
Q

outline tiffany field’s method

A

filmed 4 month old babies face to face interactions with:
primary caregiver mothers
secondary caregiver fathers
primary caregiver fathers

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31
Q

outline tiffany field’s findings

A

primary caregiver fathers and mothers spent more time smiling and interacting with the babies than the secondary caregiver fathers which suggests they are able to be more emotion focused in their role

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32
Q

ao3: what did mccallum and golombok suggest

A

found that even though fathers are suggested to have a specific role, children in same sex or single mother households did not turn out differently

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33
Q

define animal studies

A

studies carried out on non human animals for ethical or practical reasons

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34
Q

name the two key animal studies in attatchment

A

lorenz’s geese
harlow’s monkeys

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35
Q

outline lorenz’s procedure

A

randomly divided a clutch of geese eggs
half the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural environment
the other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object was lorenz

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36
Q

outline lorenz’s findings

A

the goslings imprinted on whoever they saw upon hatching, they would follow either lorenz or the mother goose, even when mixed

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37
Q

what is a critical period

A

a time where the first strong attachment must occur

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38
Q

what percentage of schaffer and emersons sample had a specific attachment to their father

A

3%

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39
Q

define sexual imprinting

A

relationship between imprinting and adult mate preferences

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40
Q

what did lorenz observe about sexual imprinting

A

birds that imprinted on a human, would often display courtship behaviour towards humans in later life
did further research on peacocks who imprinted on tortoise, as an adult they showed courtship to tortoises

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41
Q

ao3: outline guiton et al’s study and findings

A

observed that chickens imprinted on yellow washing up gloves and would try to mate with them, however they eventually learnt to mate with other chickens

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42
Q

outline harlow’s study

A

reared 16 baby monkeys with a surrogate mother
condition 1: a metal wire mother dispensed milk
condition 2: a cloth heated mother dispensed milk
in another condition the cloth mother did not dispense milk

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43
Q

outline harlow’s findings

A

the monkeys preferred the cloth mother over the wire mother, they ran to the cloth mother for comfort and protection no matter which mother dispensed milk

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44
Q

outline harlow’s conclusion

A

comfort is more important than food in attatchment

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45
Q

outline harlow’s study and findings into maternal deprivation

A

studied monkeys who had been deprived in adulthood
maternal deprivation had effects on behaviour:
agressive and antisocial
autistic like behaviour
unable to mate normally
neglected and attacked their own young

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46
Q

what critical period did harlow suggest

A

90 days

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47
Q

ao3: what did howe suggest about harlow’s study

A

highlighted the importance of he research in helping social workers understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse helps to prevent it

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48
Q

what nicknames did harlow give the cage and wire mothers

A

cage: pits of despair
wire mothers: iron maidens

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49
Q

who introduced the idea of cupboard love

A

dollard and miller

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50
Q

what theory does cupboard love support

A

behaviourist

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51
Q

define cupboard love

A

the infant learns to love whoever feeds them

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52
Q

what are the 3 features of the learning theory in attachment

A

classical conditioning
operant conditioning
attachment as a secondary drive

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53
Q

define classical conditioning

A

learning to associate stimuli together so that you respond to one in the same way you respond to the other

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54
Q

relate classical conditioning to attatchment

A

the caregiver transforms from the neutral stimulus to the conditioned one, and the infant relates the caregiver to food

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55
Q

what is the unconditioned stimulus in attatchment

A

food

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56
Q

what is the unconditioned response in attatchment

A

happy baby

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57
Q

who conducted the original classical conditioning study

A

pavlov

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58
Q

define operant conditioning

A

learning to repeat a behaviour based on the consequences

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59
Q

relate operant conditioning to attatchment

A

the infant receives positive reinforcement for crying, food
the caregiver receives negative reinforcement through feeding, the baby stops crying

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60
Q

who conducted the original operant conditioning study

A

skinner

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61
Q

define a primary drive

A

an innate biological motivator

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62
Q

what is a babies primary drive

A

hunger

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63
Q

what did sears et al suggest

A

caregivers provide food which lead infants to relate them with hunger reduction, making attatchment the secondary drive
association with the caregiver is the satisfaction of the primary drive

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64
Q

ao3: what did hay and vespo suggest

A

parents teach children to love through modelling behaviour such as hugging

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65
Q

who rejected learning theory in attachment

A

bowlby

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66
Q

what explanation did bowlby propose

A

an evolutionary explanation
attachment is an innate system designed to increase survival

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67
Q

what approach is evolution

A

a form of the biological approach

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68
Q

outline bowlby’s theory of attatchment

A

children typically develop one strong attachment early on
the more time spent with this attachment the better, and any time apart presents challenges

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69
Q

what two factors shape bowlby’s theory

A

law of continuity
law of accumulated separation

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70
Q

define the law of continuity

A

the more constant and predictable a child’s care, the better quality of attachment there is

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71
Q

define the law of accumulated seperarion

A

every time the mother and baby are separated, the effects add up

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72
Q

outline the timeline of bowlby’s theory

A

child is born
child uses social releasers to encourage attachment
child and primary caregiver develop monotropic attachment
each subsequent separation damages wellbeing

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73
Q

define social releasers

A

a set of innate ‘cute’ behaviours infants are born with which activate adult attachment systems

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74
Q

define monotropic

A

the idea that there is one particular attachment which is distinct and central to child development

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75
Q

what did bowlby predict the critical period to be

A

the first two years of an infants life

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76
Q

what will happen if no attachment is made in the critical period

A

an attachment may not form at all

77
Q

outline bowlby’s theory of the internal working model

A

believed our early attachments shape our later attachments shape our attachments in later life
he argues if we have a strong attachment, we will have strong attachments later on
bowlby argues it particularly effects parenting

78
Q

ao3: outline bailey et al’s research

A

conducted research on 99 mothers
those with poor mother figures were more likely to have poor attachments to their children

79
Q

ao3: outline brazelton et al’s research

A

observed babies and mothers and found interactional synchrony
created an experiment where the attachment figures were instructed to ignore babies’ signals and found the babies showed distress until they crawled into the fetal position

80
Q

ao3: what did kagan propose

A

proposed a temperament hypothesis which suggests child’s genetically inherited personality traits have a role to play when attachments form
some are more sociable and easy whereas some may be more anxious and difficult

81
Q

who conducted the strange situation

A

mary ainsworth

82
Q

outline the aim of the strange situation study

A

to assess the quality of a child’s attachment to a caregiver by observing key behaviours in distinct and measurable categories of attachment

83
Q

what type of observation is the strange situation

A

covert, controlled and non participant

84
Q

where was the strange situation study conducted in

A

conducted in a laboratory with a two way mirror so the psychologists could observe without disruption

85
Q

where was the strange situation study conducted in

A

conducted in a laboratory with a two way mirror so the psychologists could observe without disruption

86
Q

in the strange situation, how were attatchment behaviours measured

A

the psychologists ranked the infants attatchment behaviours on a scale of 1-7

87
Q

what atttachment behaviours were judged in the strange situation study

A

proximity seeking
exploration/secure base behaviour
stranger anxiety
separation anxiety
reunion response

88
Q

what were the three attatchment types concluded from the strange situation

A

A insecure-avoidant attatchment
B secure attatchment
C insecure-resistant attatchment

89
Q

outline the seven stages of the strange situation

A

child encouraged to explore
stranger enters and tries to interact
caregiver leaves and strangers stays
caregiver returns and stranger leaves
caregiver leaves child alone
the stranger returns
caregiver returns and is reunited with child

90
Q

outline the characteristics of insecure-avoidant attatchment

A

characterised by low anxiety and weak attachment
children explore freely, but don’t display proximity seeking or secure base behaviour
do not show distress when alone or seeing a stranger, they do not require comforting

91
Q

describe the behaviour of parents of type A children

A

emotionally unavailable and unresponsive
discourage crying and encourage premature independence
disregard needs

92
Q

how many children were classified as insecure-avoidant in the strange situation

A

22%

93
Q

how many children were classified as insecure-avoidant in the uk

A

20-25%

94
Q

outline the characteristics of secure attatchment

A

associated with psychologically healthy outcomes
explore happily but regularly return back to their secure base
show moderate separation distress and stranger anxiety
need and accept comfort upon reunion

95
Q

describe the behaviour of parents of type B children

A

nurturing, emotionally available and consistent

96
Q

how many children were classified as secure in the strange situation

A

65%

97
Q

how many children were classified as secure in the uk

A

60-75%

98
Q

outline the characteristics of insecure-resistant attachment

A

characterised by strong attachment and high anxiety
seek greater proximity and explore less
show extreme separation and stranger anxiety
resist comfort upon reunion

99
Q

describe the behaviour of parents of type C children

A

inconsistent parenting
responsive and unavailable, leading to confusion in the child

100
Q

how many children were classified as insecure-resistant in the strange situation

A

12%

101
Q

how many children were classified as insecure-resistant in the uk

A

3%

102
Q

ao3: what was the agreement between the observers of the strange situation

A

94%

103
Q

ao3: outline mccormick et al’s findings

A

found that securely attached infants were more likely to achieve better in school, less likely to be involved in bullying and more likely to have better mental health

104
Q

ao3: outline main and solomans research

A

conducted research that analysed several hundred strange situation studies via videotape and suggested that ainsworth overlooked a fourth type: insecure-disorganised, infants who show inconsistent behaviour types

105
Q

ao3: outline van ijzendoorn et al

A

conducted a meta-analysis of strange situations, found that 15% of infants were type D attatchment

106
Q

define culture

A

the norms and values that exist within any group of people

107
Q

what is cultural variation

A

different groups have different norms and values

108
Q

what was the aim of van ijzendoorn and kroonenberg

A

to investigate cross cultural variations in attatchment
proportions of secure, insecure avoidant and insecure resistant across countries

109
Q

what was the procedure of van ijzendoorn and kroonenberg

A

meta analysis of 32 studies of the strange situation
conducted over 8 countries, with results for 1990 children

110
Q

what was the most common attatchment across all countries

A

secure attatchment was most common across all countries

111
Q

what was the variation of secure attachments across countries”"”c

A

75% in britain to 50% in china

112
Q

what was the second most common attatchment type across countries and where was it most and least common

A

insecure avoidant, most common in germany and least common in japan

113
Q

what was the variation of insecure resistant attatchment across countries

A

3% in britain to 30% in israel

114
Q

what were the attatchment differences across cultures

A

rates of insecure resistant attatchment in individualistic cultures were similar to ainsworth’s findings but this wants true for collectivist cultures such as japan china and israel

115
Q

what was found about variations within countries

A

they were more common than variations between countries

116
Q

what were variations in attatchment across the usa

A

46% secure in one study compared to 90% in another

117
Q

outline simonella et als study

A

conducted a study in italy on 76 infants to see if proportion in attatchment types still matches previous findings

118
Q

what percentage of infants were secure attached in simonella’s study and how does this compare to other studies

A

50%
lower than usual

119
Q

what percentage of infants were insecure avoidant attached in simonella’s study and how does this compare to other studies

A

36%
higher than usual

120
Q

what do researchers suggest about the difference in attachment types in italy (simonella)

A

secure is lower and avoidant is higher because the of the change in working hours

121
Q

outline jin et al’s study

A

conducted a strange situation study on 87 infants to compare proportions of attachment types in korea

122
Q

what were the findings of jin et al’s study

A

overall was most similar with secure attachment being most common
however most of the insecure children were classified as resistant with only one being avoidant

123
Q

what does secure attatchment being most common across all cultures tell us

A

attachment is innate

124
Q

what does differences in attachment across cultures tell us

A

cultural attitudes/practices can impact attatchment

125
Q

what did bowlby say about mother love

A

‘mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as are vitamins and proteins for your health’

126
Q

define seperation

A

an infant not being in the presence of primary attachment figure

127
Q

define deprivation

A

a loss of emotional care (can happen, even if the mother is present)

128
Q

why is brief separation fine

A

as the infant is normally with a substitute caregiver

129
Q

what does bowlby see the critical period to be

A

2 and a half years

130
Q

what does bowlby suggest happens if a child is deprived from emotional care in a critical period

A

damage is inevitable

131
Q

what are the two types of development deprivation has an effect on

A

intellectual development
emotional development

132
Q

what is delayed intellectual development characterised by

A

an abnormally low iq

133
Q

outline goldfarb’s study into maternal deprivation

A

studied 30 orphans, half had been fostered by 4 months and the other half remained in an institution
assessed their iq score at 12

134
Q

what were the findings of goldfarbs study into maternal deprivation

A

fostered children: iq of 96
institutionalised children: iq of 68

135
Q

what did bowlby suggest the effect of maternal deprivation on emotional development was

A

affectionless psychopathy

136
Q

describe affectionless psychopathy

A

inability to experience strong guilt or strong emotions towards others

137
Q

name some characteristics of affectionless psychopathy

A

lack of affection, guilt/remorse for their actions and a lack of empathy for their victims

138
Q

what does affectionless psychopathy prevent

A

an individual from forming normal relationships and has been associated with criminality

139
Q

who conducted the 44 thieves study

A

bowlby

140
Q

outline the procedure of the 44 thieves study

A

sample consisted of 44 criminal teenagers accused of stealing. all of the ‘thieves’ were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy
the families were also interviewed in order to establish whether the ‘thieves’ had prolonged early separations from their mothers
a control group of non-criminal yet emotionally disturbed young people was set up to see how maternal deprivation occurred in young people who lacked criminality.

141
Q

how many of the 44 thieves were ap

A

14 of the 44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths

142
Q

how many of the 44 thieves had prolonged separation

A

12 of the 14 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in the first two years of their lives
only 5 of the remaining 30 ‘thieves’ had experienced separations.

143
Q

what were the conclusions made from the 44 h thieves study

A

prolonged early separation/deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy

144
Q

ao3: what did rutter suggest about deprivation

A

distinguished between two types of negative early experience, deprivation and privation
deprivation: the loss of the primary attachment figure once the attachment has been established
Privation: the failure to form any attachment in the first place

145
Q

ao3: what does koluchova suggest

A

reported the case of twin boys in czechoslovakia
the boys experienced severe emotional and physical abuse from the age of 18 months until they were 7 years old
the boys then received excellent care by two loving adults, by their teens, the twins appeared to have recovered fully
critical period may be a sensitive period

146
Q

ao3: outline levy et als findings

A

found that separating baby rats from their mother for as little as a day had a permanent effect on their social development (although not other aspects of development)

147
Q

ao3: what did gao et al show to support bowlby’s theory

A

has partially supported bowlby by showing that poor quality maternal care was associated with high rates of psychopathy in adults

148
Q

what are the three stages of attatchment that have been researched

A

childhood relationships
relationships in adulthood
parental relationships with own children

149
Q

describe the internal working model

A

the mental representation of our attachment to our primary attatchment figure

150
Q

how does the internal working model affect our relationships

A

carries perception of what we think relationships should look like

151
Q

what are the likely consequences for a baby whose first relationship is loving and reliable

A

seek functional relationships, eg. being warm and loving comes naturally, effectively communicate,
don’t get easily upset

152
Q

what are the likely consequences for a baby whose first experiences of a relationship are negative

A

bring bad experiences to later relationships
struggle to form relationships or behave appropriately within them, eg. too uninvolved/emotionally close or controlling and argumentative

153
Q

what did kerns suggest about attachment type and friendships

A

securely attached babies tend to go on to form higher quality friendships
insecurely attached babies tend to have friendship difficulties in childhood

154
Q

outline the findings of myron-wilson and smiths findings

A

securely attached children: unlikely to be involved
insecure-avoidant children: victims of bullying
insecure-resistant children: bullied others

155
Q

outline myron-wilson and smith’s procedure

A

assessed attachment types and bullying in 196 children aged 7-11 in london with standard questionnaires

156
Q

what did hazan and shaver study

A

influence of atttatchment in relationships in adulthood

157
Q

what did myron-wilson and smith study

A

early attachment influence on peer relationships in childhood

158
Q

what did kerns study

A

early attachment influence on peer relationships in childhood

159
Q

outline hazan and shaver’s procedure

A

analysed 620 replies to the ‘love quiz’ published in american local newspaper
it included 3 sections: current, most important relationship, general love experiences and choosing which of three statements best described their feelings

160
Q

outline the findings of hazan and shavers study

A

56% - secure - good and lasting relationships
25% - avoidant - fear of intimacy and jealousy
19% - resistant - fear of intimacy and jealousy

161
Q

what did mccarthy study

A

attachment type influence on relationships in adulthood

162
Q

outline mccarthy’s procedure

A

studied 40 adult woman and their attachment types in infancy

163
Q

why do early attachments have an affect on parental relationships

A

adults base their parenting style on how their own, so attachment types can be passed through generations

164
Q

outline mccarthy’s findings

A

securely attached = best adult friendships and romantic relationships
insecure-avoidant = struggled with intimacy in romantic relationships
insecure-resistant = problems maintaining friendships

165
Q

outline bailey et al’s procedure

A

attachment types of 99 mothers to their babies and their own mothers.
mother-infant attachment assessed through the strange situation and the mother’s attachment assessed using an adult attachment interview

166
Q

outline bailey et al’s findings

A

majority had the same attachment classification to both their babies and own mothers

167
Q

ao3: outline fearon and roisman’s findings

A

found that early attachment type consistently predicts later attachments and emotional wellbeing

168
Q

define institutionalisation

A

a term for the effects of living in one of the such places where there is often very little emotional care

169
Q

define institution

A

refers to a place such as a prison, hospital or orphanage where people live for a long, continuous period of time

170
Q

define orphan studies

A

concerns children placed in care because their parents cannot look after them, eg. after passing away or abandoning them permanently

171
Q

why are romanian children studied in orphan studies

A

former president, nicolai ceaucescu required romanian women to have five children
many of the parents could not afford to keep the children and thus were placed into large orphanages, in very poor conditions

172
Q

outline rutter et al’s procedure

A

followed a group of 165 romanian orphans for many years as part
at ages 4, 6, 11, 15 and 22-25 years old, the orphans had their physical, emotional and cognitive development assessed
a group of 52 british children adopted around the same time served as a control group

173
Q

what was the aim of rutter et al’s study

A

the aim of the era was to investigate to what extent good care could make up for poor early experience in institutions

174
Q

what ages were the romanian children assessed in rutter et al’s study

A

4, 6, 11, 15 and 22-25 years old

175
Q

how many romanian orphans showed delayed intellectual development when they arrived in the uk

A

half

176
Q

what were the mean iq’s found in rutters romanian orphan study

A

before six months: 102
six months - two years: 86
after two years: 77

177
Q

what were the mean iq’s found in rutters romanian orphan study

A

before six months: 102
six months - two years: 86
after two years: 77

178
Q

what did beckett and kennedy find as a result of rutter’s study

A

beckett: difference in iq remained at age 16
kennedy: adhd more common by 15 and 22-25 years

179
Q

what did rutter find about children adopted after 6 months

A

showed disinhibited attachment

180
Q

describe disinhibited attachment

A

attention seeking behaviour and clinginess towards both familiar and unfamiliar adults indiscriminately

181
Q

what does rutter’s research suggest about the effects of institutionalisation on intellectual disability

A

that intellectual development can recover, provided adoption takes place before the age of 6 months - when attachment forms

182
Q

what does rutter’s research suggest about the effects of institutionalisation and disinhibited attatchment

A

suggested that disinhibited attachment is a typical adaptation to living with multiple caregivers during sensitive periods for attachment formation

183
Q

who conducted the english and romanian adoptee study

A

rutter et al

184
Q

who conducted the bucharest early intervention project

A

zeneah et al

185
Q

outline zeneah et al’s procedure

A

attachment was assessed in 95 romanian children aged 12-31 months who had spent most of their lives in institutionalised care
they were compared to a control group of 50 children who had never spent time in an institution.
the children were assessed using the strange situation, in addition to this, carers were also asked about unusual social behaviour (measure of disinhibited attachment)

186
Q

what did zeneah find about secure attatchment in institutional groups

A

only 19% of the institutional group were securely
attached, compared to 74% of the control group

187
Q

what did zeneah find about disorganised attatchment in institutional children

A

65% of the institutional group were found to have disorganised attachment
type D, where attachment behaviours could veer between needing closeness and rejecting it, and not trusting others

188
Q

what did zeneah find about disinhibited attatchment in institutionalised groups

A

in addition, from the interviews disinhibited attachment was described in 44% of the institutionalised group, compared to less than 20% of the control group

189
Q

ao3: what did langton et al say about rutter’s research

A

has informed psychologists’ understanding of the effects of institutional care and how to prevent the worst of these effects and inform the way that children are cared for in institutions

PSYCHOLOGY (7 decks)

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