4.1.2 MEMORY Flashcards
who developed the cognitive interview
fisher and geiselman
name the four techniques used in the cognitive interview
report everything
reinstate the context
reverse the order
change the perspective
describe the report everything technique
the interviewer encourages the reporting of every single detail of the event without editing anything, witnesses should not leave anything out, even if they believe it to be insignificant or are not confident about it
describe the reinstate the context technique
mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment of the original incident, the aim is to make memories accessible through contextual and emotional cues
describe the reverse the order technique
events should be recalled in a different order from the original sequence, this is done to prevent expectations and prevents dishonesty
describe the change the perspective technique
witnesses are asked to recall the event from multiple perspectives, eg imagining how it may have appeared to other witnesses or the perpetrator, this is done to disrupt expectations and the effect of our own schema
which cognitive interview techniques apply to retrieval failure
report everything
reinstate the context
which cognitive interview techniques apply to schema
reverse the order
change the perspective
who developed the enhanced cognitive interview
fisher et al
outline the characteristics of the enhanced cognitive interview
eye contact
reducing anxiety
minimise distraction
witness speaking slowly
open ended questions
what is the purpose of the enhanced cognitive interview
to create a friendly relaxed environment which helps establish rapport and ultimately, recall more information
ao3: describe kohnken et al’s meta analysis findings
conducted a meta-analysis of 55 studies to compare the effectiveness with standard police interviews and found the ECI consistently provided more accurate information
ao3: describe kohnken et al’s findings in regards to the quality of the cognitive interview
found an 81% increase in correct information, but also a 61% increase in incorrect information
define anxiety
a state of emotional and physical arousal
what emotions are experienced during anxiety
worried thoughts, feelings of tension, increased heart rate, sweatiness
outline johnson and scott’s procedure
participants believed they were taking part in a lab study
low anxiety - overheard casual conversation, man walked out holding pen with greasy hands
high anxiety - overheard a heated argument, man walked out holding a knife with bloody hands
participants were asked to pick man out from a set of photographs
outline johnson and scott’s findings
low anxiety - 49% accurately chose
high anxiety - 33% accurately chose
outline the conclusion made from johnson and scott’s study
tunnel theory = enhanced memory for central events due to weapon focus.
outline yuille and cutshall’s procedure
study of a real life shooting in vancouver
shop owner shot a thief dead
21 witnesses - 13 took part in the study
interview 4-5 months after the incident and were compared with original police interviews
asked to rate how stressed they felt at the time of the incident
outline yuille and cutshall’s findings
witnesses were very accurate and there was little change in accuracy
some details such as age and height were less accurate
participants reporting high stress : 88% accurate
participants reporting low stress : 75% accurate
outline the work of deffenbacher
reviewed 21 studies of eye-witness testimony and noted contradictory findings, using the yerkes-dodson law
outline the yerkes dodson law
fight or flight - increased alertness and improved recall - optimal level of anxiety - beyond this, recall suffers drastically
ao3: outline pickels study into weapon focus
used a raw chicken, a handgun, a wallet, or scissors as hand held items in a hairdressing salon video
raw chicken : low anxiety high unusualness
a handgun : high anxiety high unusualness
a wallet : low anxiety low unusualness
scissors : high anxiety high unusualness
ao3 : outline the findings and conclusion of pickels study into weapon focus
eyewitness accuracy was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (chicken and a handgun)
people focus on the weapon because they are surprised by what they see, rather than because they are scared
ao3 : outline christianason and hubinette’s study into the positive role of anxiety
interviewed 58 witnesses to bank robberies in sweden
some witnesses were directly involved (bank workers), some were indirectly involved (bystanders)
ao3 : outline the findings of christianason and hubinette’s study into the positive role of anxiety
recall was more than 75% accurate across all victims
the direct victims were even more accurate
define eyewitness testimony
the ability of the people to remember the details of an event, such as accidents or crimes which they themselves have observed
define misleading information
incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event
name the types of misleading information
leading questions
post event discussion
outline loftus and palmer’s procedure
45 participants watched a video of a car accident and then were asked questions
critical question: about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other
five groups of participants
each group given a different verb for the critical question: hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed
outline loftus and palmer’s findings
the mean estimated speed was calculated for each participant group
speed estimates varied significantly
leading questions biased the eyewitness’s recall of the event
name the two reasons leading questions effect eyewitness testimony
response-bias explanation
substitution explanation
describe response-bias explanation
wording has no real effect on the participants memory
participants are encouraged to estimate a higher speed when the word smashed is used
describe the substitution explanation
question alters the participants memory of the event
participants are more likely to recall seeing broken glass when the word smashed is used
outline gabbert et al’s procedure
studied participants in pairs
each pair watched a video of the same crime but from different points of view
each participant saw elements the other could not
both participants discussed what they had seen before completing a recall test
outline gabbert et al’s findings
71% of participants mistakenly recalled elements of the event they did not see in the video but picked up in the discussion
name the two reasons post-event discussions affect eyewitness testimony
memory contamination
memory conformity
describe memory contamination
eye witness testimonies become altered or distorted following post-event discussion
combine misinformation from other witnesses with their own memory
describe memory conformity
witnesses go along with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right and they are wrong
actual memory is unchanged
ao3 : outline foster et al’s findings
found that if participants thought they were watching a real-life robbery and that their responses would influence the trial, their identification was more accurate
ao3 : zaragoza and mccloskey
argued that demand characteristics are likely to occur in eyewitness studies as participants want to appear helpful and not let the researcher down
define retrieval failure
forgetting due to insufficient cues
accessibility problem
who created the encoding specificity principle
tulving
outline the encoding specificity principle
a cue must be present at encoding and retrieval
if cues are different, forgetting occurs
name the two types of retrieval failure
context-dependant forgetting
state-dependant forgetting
outline godden and baddeley’s procedure
deep sea divers were divided into four conditions:
- learn words on land, recall on land
- learn words underwater, recall on land
- learn words on land, recall underwater
- learn words underwater, recall underwater
outline the findings of golden and baddeley’s findings
accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching conditions as external cues at learning were different from those at recall
what did godden and baddeley research
context-dependant forgetting
what did johnson and scott research
negative effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony
what did yuille and cutshall research
positive effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony
what did loftus and palmer research
the effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony
what did gabbert et al research
the effect of post-event discussion on eyewitness testimony
outline carter and cassaday’s procedure
participants divided into four conditions using antihistamines to alter their state:
- learn words on drug, recall on drug
- learn words on drug, recall not on drug
- learn words not on drug, recall on drug
- learn words not on drug, recall not on drug
outline carter and cassaday’s findings
accurate recall was significantly lower in the non matching conditions, as the internal cues available at learning were different from those at recall
what did carter and cassaday research
state-dependant forgetting
outline baker et al’s study and findings
students were placed into one of four groups, had to learn a list of 15 words in two minutes and recall 24 hours later
- gum, no gum
- gum, gum
- no gum, gum
- no gum, no gum
average number of correct recall was: 8, 11, 7, 8.5
what did baker et al research
context-dependant forgetting
ao3: outline darley et al’s research
researched the impact of marijuana on an individual’s recollection
found that individuals who were under the influence of marijuana when they put money in a ‘safe place’ were less able to recall where this location was once they were no longer under the influence of the drug
ao3: outline godden and baddeley’s variation using recognition tests
replicated their underwater experiment but used a recognition test instead of recall
participants had to say whether they recognised a word read to them from a list, instead of retrieving it themselves
when recognition was tested there was no context-dependent effect, performance was the same in all four conditions
describe interference as an explanation of forgetting
accessibility problem which occurs when two pieces of information have to compete with each other and end up clashing
what factors may affect interference
time sensitivity
similarity
name the two types of interference
proactive
rectroactive
define proactive interference
when an older memory interferes with a newer one
define retroactive interference
when a new memory interferes with an older one
who researched the effects of similarity on interference
mcgeoch and mcdonald
outline mcgeoch and mcdonald’s procedure
participant learnt 10 words until they could recall then with 100% accuracy
they were split into six groups and given a second list to remember: synonyms, antonyms, unrelated, consonant syllables, 3 digit numbers and no new list
outline mcgeoch and mcdonald’s findings
recall of first list depended on the second
most similar material had the worst recall
outline the conclusion made from mcgeoch and mcdonald’s stufy
interference is greatest when memories are the most similar
ao3: outline baddeley and hitch’s research
asked rugby players to recall teams they had played in the season, number of matches played varied
players who played the most games had the worst recall
who developed the working memory model
baddeley and hitch
name the components of the working memory model
central executive
phonological loop
visuo-spatial sketchpad
episodic buffer
name the subdivisions of the phonological loop
phonological store
articulatory process
name the subdivisions of the visa-spatial sketchpad
visual cache
inner scribe
what is the function of the central executive
monitors incoming data
focuses and divides our limited attention
allocates slaves systems to tasks
what is the function of the phonological loop
processes auditory information
what is the function of the phonological store
stores the words you hear
what is the function of the articulatory process
repeats sounds whilst needed (maintenance rehearsal)
what is the function of the visuo-spatial sketchpad
processes visual and spacial information
what is the function of the visual cache
stores visual data
what is the function of the inner scribe
records arrangement of objects in the visual field
what is the function of the episodic buffer
integrates information and maintains time sequencing
what is dual task performance
explains why we find it easy to do two tasks at once, but only if the tasks use different components
why is it difficult to do two tasks which use the same component at once
limited capacity
ao3: how does kf support the working memory model
had poor stm ability for auditory information but normal ability for visual information, shows his phonological loop was damaged but his visuo spatial sketchpad was intact
ao3: outline baddeleys supporting research for dual task performance
when visual and verbal task carried out, performance was the same as separate
when both tasks visual performance declined substantially
ao3: how does evr present problems with the wmm
performed well on tests requiring reasoning, which suggested that his ce was intact.
however, he had poor decision-making skills, which suggests that there are several component
