4.1 - Causes of Chinese Revolution Flashcards
1
Q
Chinese Culture
A
- Confucianism – relations built on respect for elders, but those in power expected to care for those below them
- Daoism – believes that natural order of things should not be disrupted so social order should be accepted
- Buddhism – provided hope
2
Q
Chinese Geography
A
- 9.6 million km2
- Diverse climate – tropical South; North subject to drought
- Divided into provinces → regionalism
- Mountain ranges cover 60% of the country
- Only 20% of land suitable for farming
- Majority of population live along coast or Yellow or Yangzi Rivers → problem of flooding
- Diverse population – 10% of the population comprises 55 ethnic groups
3
Q
Social Hierarchy - Peasants
A
o 80% of population
o Valued due to the food that they produced – some of the most productive farmers in the world
o Lived in simple villages
o Worked hours of backbreaking work, and on major government construction projects
o Population growth → shortages of land → increased land prices → increased poverty and farmers forced to rent land
1930 – peasants made up 70% of population but only owned 17% of land
o Average life expectancy only 25 years old
o Poverty closed off opportunities for social advancement → discontent
4
Q
Social Hierarchy - Townspeople
A
o Included merchants, soldiers, tradespeople and labourers
o Wealth varied greatly
o Merchants at bottom of social hierarchy because they benefitted from others’ work
o Soldiers lacked respect
5
Q
Social Hierarchy - Landlords and Officials
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o Rented land to tenant farmers
o 1850 – 60% of land owned by wealthy Chinese
o Acted as informal local administrators → took advantage of peasantry
o Corruption rife
6
Q
Social Hierarchy - Women
A
o Least valued group – couldn’t hold official position, often did not have names, allowed to die of neglect when food was scarce
7
Q
Mandate of Heaven
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- Emperor seen as the representative of divine power → demanded obedience
- Emperor reviewed petitions and composed new laws
- If emperor ruled wisely and remained virtuous, peace was guaranteed
- If emperor ruled unwisely and without virtue, disapproval was shown through natural disasters
- A successful coup or rebellion was not immoral as heaven had approved
8
Q
Sun Yixian
A
- One of the most important leaders of the Chinese revolutionary movement up to 1912
- Educated in the USA → saw the benefits of a modern, democratic government
- Believed that the imperial system was outdated and needed to be overthrown, and that modernisation was only possible in China adopted Western-style political and economic institutions
- Formed the Revive China Society (1894) – developed plans for an uprising in Guangzhou but uprising failed → Sun fled to Japan
- Kidnapped by Qing Authorities (1896) while in London → increased support for revolutionary cause
- Developed Three Principles of the People
- Believed democracy could be achieved through 3 phrases:
o Military dictatorship
o Tutelage period where democratic procedures would be explained and trialled
o New constitution drawn up, elections held, and military government disbanded - Created Tongmenghui:
o Coalition of revolutionary groups
o Minbao (People’s Paper) smuggled into China
o 10,000 members by 1906
o Sponsored 3 of 4 rebellions (1908-11), but none succeeded - Soldiers that took part in revolution were sympathetic to Sun’s political rhetoric, despite him being in the USA
9
Q
Three Principles of the People
A
- Nationalism – domination by foreign powers had to end and Manchus should be ousted
- People’s Livelihood – improve welfare of workers, regulate ownership of land, increase state influence in industry, and create a fairer tax system
- Democracy – modelled on Western style system
10
Q
Xinhai Revolution
A
- Officers connected to Tongmenghui had been plotting an uprising → begin to rebel when Qing authorities investigate → rebels take control of Hubei province, and this spreads quickly to 24 provinces within 6 weeks
- Sun Yixian returns to China and becomes a leading figure → Provisional Government proclaimed 29 Dec 1911, with Sun becoming President on 1 Jan 1912
- Provisional Government based in Nanjing
11
Q
Background on Yuan Shikai
A
- Yuan Shikai was a general in the Modernised Beijing Army
- Appointed Commander in Chief of Qing Military in 1911, and received a cabinet position
- Yuan marched to restore order during Xinhai Revolution, but began to negotiate with revolutionaries
- Sun agreed to step down as President due to his beliefs on creating a military dictatorship, with Yuan becoming the new President if he could get the Qing Emperor (5 year old Pu Yi) to abdicate
- Pu Yi abdicated 12 Feb 1912
12
Q
Yuan’s Government
A
- Willing to reform – projects included:
o Reform to legal system
o Suppression of opium farming
o Encouraging of primary education
o Centralising the national economy
o Irrigation and flood control to increase crop yields - Appointed loyal commanders as provincial governors
- Not interested in creating a democratic republic
- Sun Yixian made Minister of Railways in Yuan’s Government
13
Q
Guomindang
A
- Sun Yixian remained leader of republicans, but Song Jiaoren now responsible for day to day political matters
- Song aimed to transform Tongmenghui into a modern political party – achieved this by merging with 4 other small parties to create the Guomindang
- 1913 – Guomindang won a majority of seats and Song became Prime Minister
- Song hoped to restrict Yuan’s use of executive powers by encouraging the development of a ‘responsible’ ministry and parliamentary opposition
- However, Song lacked the power to make these changes
14
Q
Yuan’s Dictatorship
A
- Yuan still controlled the military
- Government relocated to Yuan’s stronghold of Beijing
- 1912 – 4 Guomindang members of Yuan’s cabinet pressured to resign, and replaced with loyalists
- Song assassinated in March 1913
- Apr 1913 – Yuan secured a ‘Reorganisation Loan’ of $100m from foreign banks → Guomindang members attempted to impeach Yuan as this violated their policy of nationalism, but they were forced to back down
- July 1913 – Jiangxi declared independence → 6 other provinces rebelling one month after as a ‘second revolution’ but Yuan easily put down the revolution
- Yuan used this as an excuse to increase his power:
o Nov 1913 – Guomindang banned
o Jan 1914 – Parliaments dissolved
o May 1914 – term limit extended from 5 to 10 years; Yuan granted dictatorial powers over military, diplomacy and finance
15
Q
Twenty One Demands
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- Jan 1915 – in return for loans to China, Japan provides ultimatum in the 21 Demands, including:
o Rights to economic development in Manchuria and Mongolia
o Control over mining in central China
o Control over Liaodong Peninsula
o Right to appoint Japanese advisers to Chinese Government - 7 May 1915 – Yuan accepted all demands except for Japanese advisers → patriotic protests and ‘day of shame’ in China
16
Q
Yuan’s Emperorship
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- Jan 1916 – Yuan assumed title as Emperor ‘for the sake of the nation’
- Yuan forced to renounce his claim due to his generals and governors disapproving
17
Q
New Culture Movement
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- Inspired by an increase in nationalistic feelings, political fragmentation and a decline of Confucian influence
- Included feminists, nationalists, Marxists and democrats – not one organised group
- Wanted to create a new cultural identity for China
- Questioned Confucian traditions, found new writing styles and examined China’s future
- Aimed to create peace and unity, after the failure of the 1911 Revolution
- Key Individuals:
o Cai Yuanpei – gathered a community of likeminded, innovative thinkers at Beijing University
o Hu Shi – popularised simpler Baihua style of writing → more accessible and able to spread new ideas
o Lu Xun – wrote in Baihua criticising Confucianism as outdated and exploitative
o Chen Duxiu – founded ‘New Youth’ journal
o Li Dazhao – began a Marxist study group with Mao Zedong
o Ding Ling – rebelled against gender roles
18
Q
May Fourth Movement
A
- Students preparing for ‘Day of Shame’ protests on 7th May 1919 received news about Treaty of Versailles – China had not received control over Shandong Province
- Outrage and shame emerged → protests brought forward to 4th May with 3000 students gathering in Tiananmen Square – urged Government not to sign Treaty
- 30 leaders arrested → protests spread across China, workers went on strike and a boycott of Japanese goods occurred
o June – 100k workers on week long strike in Shanghai
o Within 1 month, 20 provinces and 100 towns had protests - Leading figures of New Culture Movement also became involved in May 4 Movement
- Unity of workers, students and intellectuals emerged
- Marked the beginning of a credible nationalist movement against foreign imperialist and warlord corruption
19
Q
Formation of Chinese Communist Party
A
- Anger at China’s treatment at the Treaty of Versailles → disillusionment with the West and a shift toward Russia for inspiration, due to:
o Russia’s success in defeating foreign forces in the civil war
o Both countries looking to modernise
o Neither country liked Japan - March 1919 – Comintern established by Russia to support overseas revolutionaries
- July 1919 – Karakhan Manifesto declared that Soviets would renounce all claims in China → increased support for Russia
- April 1920 – Comintern arrives in China and meets with Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu → formation of 12 Communist cells across China
- July 1921 – First National Party Congress held → Chen elected Secretary General of newly formed CCP
20
Q
Initial Situation in Chinese Communist Party
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- Initially small, with only 57 members
- Significant disagreement existed on whether to include peasants in revolution
o Chen believed peasants were too hard to unify so should not be involved
o Li believed that peasants needed to be involved due to the size of their class - Disagreements between CCP and Comintern – Chen labelled as being too dictatorial by Comintern, and Russians disagreed with Li’s interpretation of Marxism
- Russia remained the main source of finance and guidance for the CCP
21
Q
Guangzhou Government
A
- Aug 1917 – Lack of power and unity in national government → realisation that change was needed → members of the National Assembly gathered in Guangzhou
- Sun was elected as the grand marshal as this new military government
- Sun’s government aligned itself with Southern Warlords
- However, infighting and a loss of support with warlords → government forced to end
- May 1921 – Sun returned to Guangzhou and created a new government with General Chen
- Chen wanted to consolidate power in the South but Sun wanted to march North and re-establish the republic
- Failure of Sun’s military expedition → alliance broke down and Chen fled to Shanghai
22
Q
Sun-Joffe Declaration
A
- Sun turned attention toward foreign powers for support → came into contact with Comintern
- Aug 1922 – discussion with Comintern regarding reorganisation of Guomindang and conditions for Soviet aid
- Russia believed that ties with Guomindang would be important due to their prestige
- Formation of United Front
o Sun desperate for revolution and other attempts failed
o Chen reluctant to join as he wanted a communist revolution and did not want to associate with Bourgeoisie, but eventually joined due to the CCP’s small size and the Guomindang’s expertise - Sun-Joffe Declaration outlined goals as being national independence and unity
- Did not include any socialist goals – it was believed that a nationalist revolution would lay the foundations for a socialist one
23
Q
Benefits of First United Front
A
- Jan 1923 – base established in Guangzhou
- Comintern supported reorganisation of Guomindang:
o New structure of democratic centralism
o Three Principles of the People guided party, with new focus on removing warlords and imperialism, and emphasising the role of peasants and workers - Comintern provided military advice to United Front:
o Jiang Jieshi sent to Russia for training from the Red Army
o May 1924 – Huangpu Military Academy established and funded by Russia - Guomindang impressed by passion of younger Communists → given role of rallying support amongst workers and peasants
24
Q
Death of Sun Yixian
A
- 1924 – conflict between Northern warlords → new government likely
- Sun travelled to Beijing to create agreement with powers
- However, upon arrival, he became unwell
- Died 12 March 1925
- Consequences:
o Destabilised United Front – lacked leadership
o Factional disagreements
o Jiang Jieshi had leadership ambitions, but lacked prestige and authority
25
Q
May 30 Atrocious Incident
A
- 30 May 1925 – British guards fired on protesting textile workers in Shanghai → 11 deaths
- Solidarity protest in Guangzhou were broken up by British guards → 52 deaths
- Incident led to increased anti-imperialist feeling and renewed the May Fourth Movement
- CCP membership grew to 57k members by 1927
26
Q
Rise of Jiang Jieshi
A
- Aug 1925 – Liao Zhongkai (leading member of GMD) was assassinated → establishment of 3 man leadership team for United Front – this included Jiang
- Mar 1926 – alleged kidnapping of Jiang → blamed CCP
- Jiang then placed pressure on the GMD to removed Communists from senior positions
- Wang Jingwei (one of the members of the 3 man leadership team) was forced to resign due to rumours of involvement
- 6 July 1926 – Jiang elected chairman of GMD
27
Q
Northern Expedition
A
- 1 July 1926 – Jiang announces mobilisation of Northern Expedition
- Declared aim – overthrow warlords and complete the Revolution
- Undeclared aim – destroy Communists
- 27 July 1926 – 85k troops and 6k Huangpu officers march North
- Advantages held by Nationalist Army:
o Northern forces, despite having 750k, were divided and unable to launch a coordinated attach
o Northern troops were badly equipped and poorly trained
o Nationalist Army was disciplined, well financed, professional and directed by Soviets
o Nationalist Army had high morale - Communist agitators moved ahead of Army with the aim of mobilising workers’ and peasants’ support
- 1927 – Nationalist Army was marching on Nanjing and Shanghai after great success
28
Q
White Terror
A
- Nationalist led terror against Communists
- Jan 1927 – United Front Government moved to Wuhan → angered Jiang as this moved the Government away from his supporters in Nanchang
- Mar 1927 – Nationalist Army marches on Shanghai, with unions staging a mass strike → city became paralysed and eventually fell under Nationalist control
- Jiang became increasingly concerned with Communist influence
29
Q
Shanghai Massacre
A
- Jiang contacts one of his criminal gang links, the Green Gang, led by ‘Big Ears Du’
- Jiang promises legal immunity and the exclusive right to sell opium in Shanghai, if they removed the Communist problem
- Apr 1927 – Big Ears Du formed 2000 man militia, China Mutual Progress Association → massacre began by rounding up Communists and unionist → 5-10k Communists killed
- White Terror spread across other cities under Nationalist Control → hundreds of thousands killed
30
Q
End of First United Front
A
- Comintern greatly underestimated Jiang – Stalin knew about his plan to turn on the Communists, but believed that they would still be able to remove him
- Wang Jingwei accused Jiang of a ‘massacre of the people’ → Wang expelled from the GMD in Apr 1927
- CCP leadership in disarray:
o Cut ties with Jiang, but maintained ties with Wang
o Asked Stalin for permission to build their own army and encourage revolution in the countryside
o Stalin initially rejected, but changed his mind - Comintern advisor makes serious blunder by revealing plan to build CCP army to Wang → makes Wang more suspicious of CCP
- 15 July 1927 – Nationalists expel CCP from United Front → end of United Front
31
Q
GMD After End of First United Front
A
- GMD greatly divided with leaders becoming rivals
- Jiang moved away from leadership struggle by travelling to Japan → allowed rivals to fight amongst each other
- End of 1927 – Wang’s Wuhan Government dissolved and joined the Government in Nanjing
- GMD invited Jiang back in as they desired a strong leader
- Jan 1928 – Jiang continues Northern Expedition
- June 1928 – Beijing moved under GMD control
- Oct 1928 – Jiang elected Chairman of Nationalist Government
- Impacts of Northern Expedition:
o Created national unity – first unified government since Yuan Shikai
o Jiang held enormous power - Jiang embarked upon decade of modernisation and reconstruction – ‘Nanjing Decade’
32
Q
Communists in Crisis
A
- Breakdown in United Front caused a change in CCP leadership – Chen Duxiu was replaced with Qu Qiubai
- 1 Aug 1927 – Communist uprising against Nationalists → revolutionary government proclaimed but only lasted 4 days
- 7 Sep 1927 – Mao launches Autumn Harvest Uprising with the aim of creating an uprising amongst Hunanese peasantry
o However, this failed after facing significant opposition from GMD forces
o Mao eventually was forced to retreat to Jinggangshan with General Zhu De - 11 Dec 1927 – CCP gains control of Guangzhou but this only lasted 2 days due to a lack of support from workers → Nationalists retook the city and killed 5700 Communists and sympathisers
- Membership of the CCP fell from 57k to only 10k by the end of the 1920s
- Moscow blamed the CCP for the failures of uprisings → CCP Politburo continued focus on proletariat and blamed Mao, with him being removed from the Politburo
- June 1930 – GMD repression of CCP became so widespread that the 6th Party Congress was forced to be held in Moscow
o Qu Qiubai replaced by Li Lisan - During the rise of regional militarism in central China, Li ordered further uprisings
o CCP experienced some success in cities in the Yangzi River valley
o However, attacks on Nanchang and Wuhan failed
o These uprisings also used Red Armies from rural areas → Jiang now focussed on targeting these – where the CCP was gaining strength beforehand - 8 Jan 1931 – Li replaced with the ‘28 Bolsheviks’
o Their inexperience and youthfulness led to them being ridiculed by veteran CCP members - Mao continued to pursue revolution in rural areas
33
Q
Formation of Jiangxi Soviet
A
- Base in Jinggangshan allowed Mao to test his theories in isolation
- Mao formed the Communist’s First Workers’ and Peasants’ Army – this had broad inclusion
- Jan 1929 – Mao forced to relocate to Ruijin due to raids by the GMD and food shortages
- 7 Nov 1931 – first All China Congress of Soviets held in Ruijin → debate between Mao and 28 Bolsheviks over policy, but Mao proved successful
o Chinese Soviet Republic was proclaimed at the Congress
34
Q
Chinese Soviet Republic
A
- Mao appointed chairman of its executive committee
- Soviet acted as a community, rather than a workers’ council
- The Soviet Republic was its own state – it had its own government, constitution and laws
- The Republic aimed for an end of imperialism and warlord government, and for peace and unification
35
Q
Red Army
A
- Mao’s first and most important innovation
- General Zhu was the Commander in Chief
- Mao was the Chief Political Commissar – worked to give army a sense of self work, discipline and direction
- Political instruction given alongside military training
- Volunteer force
- Allowed captured warlord soldiers to join Red Army
- Lacked symbols of privilege or superiority
36
Q
Red Army Tactics
A
- Guerrilla tactics
- Discovered that guerrilla warfare was the best approach during Jiang’s ‘bandit extermination’ campaigns against CCP
- Aimed to lure Nationalists deep into Communist territory, then use hit and run style tactics to demoralise and exhaust Nationalists
- Relied on mobility and support from local population for information and camuflague
- Peasants provided Red Army with food, shelter, local knowledge and intelligence
