40 Vision Flashcards
Incoming light is focused on:
fovea
As an image enters the eye, it is:
- refracted by the cornea
- inverted through the pupil
- refracted by the lens
- projected onto fovea
The lens refraction abilities are controlled by:
ciliary muscles (under SNS and PNS control)
Function of sclera?
protective layer for the retina and the choroid
Function of choroid?
vasc bed which provides blood flow and nutrients to the photoreceptors and RPE cells
The retinal blood flow is supplied by:
- central retinal artery (enters through optic nerves)
2. choroid
The cell bodies of the photoreceptors are located in:
And project to:
outer nuclear layer
outer plexiform layer
The photoreceptors signal through:
to:
through the outer plexiform layer to the bipolar cells
Cell bodies of bipolar cells are located:
in the inner nuclear layer
The final layer of neurons in the retina are:
retinal ganglion cells (located in the ganglion cell layer)
Function of retinal pigmented epithelial cells?
support the photoreceptors and provide nutrients
Line outermost surface of retina?
photoreceptors
Function of interneurons?
help in convergence of the image from the millions of photoreceptors to hundreds of bipolar cells to tens of ganglion cells
Types of interneurons?
horizontal cells and amacrine cells
Coalesce to form optic nerve head?
ganglion cell axons
Blind spot =
optic nerve head
Structure of fovea?
radially displaced retinal layers
allows for minimal distortion of the image
Main functions of retinal pigmented epithelial cells?
- separate the vascular choroid from the neural retina
- phagocytose rod outer segments every 10 days
- absorb some of the light that comes to the photoreceptors
Macular degeneration results when:
blood vessels damage the RPE + break through their barrier –> grow into macular region of the eye
Light detection/transduction occurs in:
outer segment of rods
What are spherules?
synaptic vesicles in rods
Cones are (shorter/longer) and (bigger/smaller) than rods.
shorter, smaller
How is color “seen”?
recognized by a unique combo of L-, M- and S-cones
Blue cones?
S
Green cones?
M
Red cones?
L
Carried on the X-chromosome?
M-cone and L-cones
Function of photoreceptors?
absorb quanta of light and convert to elec signal
Occurs in rods/cones in response to light?
hyperpolarization
Reaction caused by light entering?
converts 11-cis-retinal to all-trans retinal
Activates rhodopsin?
Then what happens?
all-trans retinal
- Active rhodopsin can activate GTP
- activates cGMP PDE by removing inh subunit
- Active PDE decr cGMP levels enough to hyperpolarize mem = close Na and Ca channels
What repolarizes the membrane?
- calcium pumped out through the Na/Ca exchanger
- Ca reduced in the membrane –> cGMP levels rise
= re-polarize the membrane to pre-stimulus levels
How do proteins return to pre-activation?
- Slowly, rhodopsin is de-P
- Slowly, all-trans-retinal converted back to 11-cis-retinal
- Rhodopsin kinase re-P rhodopsin (which is bound by arrestin)
What removes arrestin from rhodopsin?
conversion of 11-cis-retinal to all-trans-retinal
Once photoreceptors have processed the light, the signal is passed along to:
bipolar cells
Detect major changes in activity levels at bipolar-ganglion cell synapse?
amacrine cells
Location of cone bipolar cells?
Location of rod bipolar cells?
center of retina
periphery
Help converge the signals from multiple rod photoreceptors to fewer rod bipolar cells?
Horizontal cells
Alpha ganglion cells have most input from:d
rods
*participate little in color perception
Structure of alpha ganglion cells?
extensive dendritic trees, large axons
Alpha ganglion cells project to:
magnocellular layer of the lateral geniculate nucleus
Function of alpha ganglion cells?
help locate the object in space
Function of beta ganglion cells?
fine texture and colors
Beta ganglion cells project to:
parvocellular regions in the LGN
Structure of beta ganglion cells?
small receptive field
small dendritic arbors
What does not occur in the fovea?
convergence
Ratio of
cone : cone bipolar cell : ganglion cell
1:1:1
Why do humans have a crisp image representation?
no horizontal or amacrine cell interactions in the fovea
Why is image reverse and inverted?
pinpoint effect of pupil
Decussates in optic chiasm?
ganglion cell axons (nasal fibers)
How are fibers radiating to primary visual cortex organized?
retinotopically
The L visual field is processed in the (R/L) visual cortex
R
Which visual image does not cross?
temporal
The M pathway originates from:
Projects to:
magnocellular ganglion cells
lateral geniculate layers 1/2 –> 4C alpha in the cortex
What is the function of 4C alpha in the cortex?
space info
The P pathway originates from:
Projects to:
parvocellular ganglion cells
lateral geniculate layers 3-6 –> 4C beta in the cortex
What is the function of 4C beta in the cortex?
form info
Etiology of diabetic retinopathy?
- changes in vasc (due to incr angiogenic and decr angiostatic growth factors)
- changes in neurons (loss of photoreceptors + ganglion cells)
A retinal image of advanced macular degeneration shows:
hyperfluorescence and areas of no vascularity
Leading cause of blindness in older people?
Leading cause of blindness in working age adults?
AMD
DR
Etiology of AMD?
damage to choroidal vasculature breaks through the RPE cells and damages the macula
–> Central vision = lost due to damage of macula
AMD or DR?
genetic component
both
AMD or DR?
Loss of central vision
AMD
AMD or DR?
loss of all vision
DR
AMD or DR?
choroid NV
AMD
AMD or DR?
retinal NV
DR
Cause of AMD?
Age**
Smoking
Genetics
Changes in angiogenic/static factors