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PS1060 - Intro to Biological Psychology > 4. Neurotransmitters, Neuronal Communication & Hormones > Flashcards

4. Neurotransmitters, Neuronal Communication & Hormones Flashcards

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1
Q

How large is the gap between two neurons in electrical synapses?

A

2-4nm

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2
Q

How large is the gap between two neurons in chemical synapses?

A

20-40nm

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3
Q

Ionotropic receptors control the ion channel…

A

Directly

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4
Q

When bound with the transmitter the ion channels open and… (ionotropic receptors)

A

Ions flow across the membrane

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5
Q

What are ionotropic receptors also known as?

A

Ligand-gated ion channels

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6
Q

What do metabotropic receptors activate?

A

G-proteins that subsequently control the ion channel

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7
Q

What are the 6 properties of neurotransmitters?

A
  1. Synthesized in the presynaptic neurone
  2. Localised to vesicles in the presynaptic neuron
  3. Released from the presynaptic neurone under physiological conditions
  4. Rapidly removed from the synaptic cleft by uptake or degradation
  5. Presence of receptor on the post synaptic neurone
  6. Binding to the receptor elicits a biological response
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8
Q

What is the role of Acetylcholine?

A

A neurotransmitter used by the spinal cord neurons to control muscles and by many neurons in the brain to regulate memory

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9
Q

What is the role of dopamine?

A

The neurotransmitter that produces feelings of pleasure when released by the brain reward system. Dopamine has multiple functions depending on where in the brain it acts

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10
Q

What is the role of GABA?

A

The major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain

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11
Q

What is the role of glutamate?

A

The most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

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12
Q

What is the role of glycine?

A

A neurotransmitter used mainly by neurons in the spinal cord

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13
Q

What is the role of Norepinephrine?

A

In the PNS, it is part of the fight-or-flight response. In the brain, it acts as a neurotransmitter regulating normal brain processes

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14
Q

What is the role of serotonin?

A

Involved in many functions including mood, appetite and sensory perception

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15
Q

Continued presence of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft would lead to persistent…

A

EPSPs or IPSPs - even without further APs in the presynaptic neuron

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16
Q

To prevent a continuing firing of EPSPs/IPSPs due to presence of neurotransmitters, they are either…

A
  1. Moved back into the pre-synaptic neurone (through reuptake)
  2. Degraded/neutralised by enzymes
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17
Q

What is the purpose of point-to-point communication?

A

Restricts synaptic communication

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18
Q

What is the purpose of hormonal communication?

A

Secretes chemicals into the blood stream to affect the entire body

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19
Q

What is the purpose of interconnected neurons of the ANS?

A

Simultaneously controls responses in many internal organs

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20
Q

What is the purpose of diffuse modulatory systems?

A

Specific neurotransmitters regulate arousal, mood, motivation, sexual behaviour, emotion, sleep etc.

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21
Q

Messages that must be widely broadcast through the brain use what kind of system?

A

Diffuse modulatory

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22
Q

Diffuse modulatory systems each require a specific…

A

Neurotransmitter

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23
Q

The connections of diffuse modulatory systems are widely dispersed throughout where?

A

The brain

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24
Q

What are diffuse modulatory systems important for?

A

Motor control, memory, mood, motivation and metabolic state

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25
Q

What kind of disorders are diffuse modulatory systems heavily involved in?

A

Psychiatric

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26
Q

The core of each diffuse modulatory system has a small number of what?

A

Neurons

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27
Q

Neurons of the diffuse system arise from where?

A

The core of that system

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28
Q

Where are the diffuse modulatory systems located?

A

In the brain stem

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29
Q

Describe how neurotransmitters are released throughout DMS?

A

They are released into extracellular fluid and can diffuse to many different neurons

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30
Q

Modulatory systems affect wide areas to make them more or less…

A

Excitable or synchronously active

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31
Q

DSM can influence the whole…

A

Cortex

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32
Q

Projections, in terms of DSM, are..?

A

Links between cells

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33
Q

What is the Noradrenergic Locus Coeruleus?

A

The Norepinephrine system

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34
Q

The Norepinephrine system makes some of the most diffuse…

A

Connections in the brain

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35
Q

The norepinephrine system is involved in the regulation of what?

A

Attention, arousal, sleep-wake cycles, learning and memory, anxiety, pain, mood and brain metabolism

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36
Q

What is the Norepinephrine system active by?

A

New, unexpected, non-painful sensory stimuli

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37
Q

What is the Serotonergic Raphe Nuclei?

A

The serotonin system

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38
Q

The serotonin system is made up of what?

A

The Caudal innervate spinal cord and the rostral innervate brain

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39
Q

What does the serotonin system modulate?

A

Pain-related sensation

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40
Q

When does the Rostral innervate brain fire most and why?

A

During wakefulness as it is part of the reticular activating system

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41
Q

What is the Rostral innervate brain mostly involved in?

A

Sleep-wake cycles and stages of sleep & the control of mood and emotional behaviours

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42
Q

The Caudal Nuclei projects into where and is responsible for what?

A

Into the spinal cord and is responsible for pain

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43
Q

Serotonin is very important when concerning what type of issues (give an example)?

A

Mental health issues such as depression

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44
Q

The Cholinergic Basal Forebrain is also known. as what?

A

The Acetylcholine system

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45
Q

The general function of which system is not completely understood?

A

The Cholinergic Basal Forebrain

46
Q

The Cholinergic Basal Forebrain is implicated in what?

A

Arousal, sleep-wake cycles, learning and memory

47
Q

Which disease causes the degeneration of cells within the cholinergic basal forebrain?

A

Alzheimer’s

48
Q

The Dopaminergic Substantia Nigra is known as what?

A

The Dopamine System

49
Q

In the dopamine system, the neurons project from where to where?

A

Substantia Nigra to the striatum

50
Q

What does the dopamine system control?

A

Voluntary movements

51
Q

The degeneration of the dopamine system results in what disease?

A

Parkinson’s

52
Q

The ventral tegmental area projects to where from where?

A

To the frontal Cortex to the limbic system

53
Q

The reward system reinforces what (from the dopamine system)?

A

Adaptive behaviour

54
Q

Some types of depression are believed to be due to a lack of what neurotransmitter?

A

Serotonin

55
Q

What is the name of treatment of depression involving serotonin?

A

SSRIs (selective serotonin rue-take inhibitors)

56
Q

Describe how SSRIs are used to treat symptoms of depression

A

They work by increasing the amount of serotonin that bind to postsynaptic receptors
The SSRIs block the rue-take of serotonin and therefore increasing the number of serotonin left in the synaptic cleft

57
Q

Describe how antagonistic drugs work

A

Drugs that block the effects of neurotransmitters

58
Q

Give 2 examples of antagonistic drugs

A

Novacaine and caffeine

59
Q

Describe how agonist drugs work

A

Drugs that mimic or increase the effects of neurotransmitters

60
Q

Give 3 examples of agonist drugs

A

Heroine, LSD and cocaine

61
Q

Almost all abused drugs stimulate the release of what in where?

A

Stimulate dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens

62
Q

Describe the nucleus accumbens

A

A groups of cells located in the frontal lobe and is related to the feelings of pleasure

63
Q

Describe the two ways in which ‘meth’ alters dopamine transmission

A
  1. Enters dopamine vesicles in axon terminal causing release of transmitter
  2. Blocks dopamine transporters from re-uptaking dopamine
64
Q

How does meth result in feelings of euphoria?

A

Results in more dopamine in the synaptic cleft & therefore neurones fire more often

65
Q

How can meth cause issue with the brain?

A

We usually see less activity in their nucleus accumbens

66
Q

LSD is which type of hallucinogen?

A

Serotoninergic hallucinogen

67
Q

Describe the physical effects of LSD

A

Dilated pupils, higher or lower body temp, sweating or chills, sleeplessness, dry mouth, tremors

68
Q

Describe the mental effects of LSD

A

Delusions, visual hallucinations, an artificial sense of euphoria or certainty, distortion of one’s sense of time and identity, severe terrifying thoughts and feelings, fear of losing control, panic attacks, flashbacks, severe depression or psychosis

69
Q

What does Alcohol alter within the brain?

A

Alters neuronal membranes - ion channels, enzymes and receptors

70
Q

What receptors does alcohol bind to?

A

Acetylcholine, serotonin, GABA, glutamate

71
Q

Define hormones

A

Chemicals secreted by one cell group travel through blood to targets

72
Q

Where are hormones released from

A

Endocrine glands

73
Q

How many general principles of hormones are there

A

9

74
Q

What are principles 1-3 of hormones?

A
  1. Gradual, often, long-lasting effect
  2. Change likelihood of behaviour
  3. Hormones and behaviour interact
75
Q

What are principles 4-6 of hormones?

A
  1. Many different hormones affect many different body parts and behaviours
  2. Produced in small amounts (often in small bursts)
  3. Many have rhythmic release
76
Q

What are principles 7-9 of hormones?

A
  1. Hormones interact with other hormones
  2. All vertebrate hormones have similar structures, but not necessarily similar effects
  3. Can only affect cells with the appropriate receptor proteins
77
Q

Hormones travel through the blood and influence the activity of what?

A

Other glands and hormones

78
Q

Hormones produce what types of changes in where?

A

Short and long-term changes in various cells and organs

79
Q

What type of neurotransmitters are hormones similar to?

A

Neurotransmitters at metabotropic receptors

80
Q

A hormone can only influence cells that…

A

Have specific target receptors for that particular hormone

81
Q

The secreting cell does what?

A

Secretes hormones into blood vessels

82
Q

How do hormones travel to their target cell?

A

Through the blood

83
Q

What are two types of hormones?

A

Protein and steroid

84
Q

Describe the features of protein hormones

A

Comprised of amino acids
Protein and amine hormones faster than steroids
Bind to receptor, activate second messenger
Second messenger alters cell function

85
Q

Describe the features of steroid hormones

A

These are derived from cholesterol from the diet
Bind directly to membrane receptors
Much slower
Affect the long term production of proteins within the target cells

86
Q

All glands of the body and hormones are produced by what system?

A

The endocrine system

87
Q

What is the endocrine system very important for?

A

Homestasis

88
Q

Where is the hypothalamus located and which ventricle does it form the walls of?

A

Below the thalamus and forms the walls of the third ventricle

89
Q

What is the pituitary connected to?

A

The base of the hypothalamus

90
Q

The hypothalamus integrates which type of responses?

A

Somatic and visceral responses in accordance with the needs of the brain

91
Q

Define homeostasis

A

Ensuring the body has a balanced internal environment

92
Q

What are the 3 zones of the hypothalamus?

A

Lateral, medial and periventricular

93
Q

Which zone of the hypothalamus is most highly connected to the pituitary?

A

The periventricular

94
Q

The periventricular controls what?

A

Circadian rhythms and ANS to viscera

95
Q

The posterior pituitary gland is connected to what?

A

The hypothalamus

96
Q

Where are neuro-hormones produced and released?

A

Produced in the magnocellular hypothalamus and released at the pituitary

97
Q

What does the release of oxytocin initiate?

A

Uterine contraction or milk-let down

98
Q

What triggers the release of oxytocin?

A

Somatic, visual or auditory stimuli or inhibited by stress

99
Q

Describe vasopressin and what it does

A

Antidiuretic hormone which regulated blood volume and pressure

100
Q

What is the anterior pituitary gland connected with?

A

The hypothalamus

101
Q

What do parvocellular neurosecretory cells release?

A

Tropic factors that cause the production of hormones in the anterior pituitary

102
Q

What does ACTH do?

A

Controls the adrenal cortex (kidneys)

103
Q

What does TSH do?

A

Controls the release of thyroid hormones

104
Q

What does FSH do?

A

Controls growth of ovary follicles/sperm

105
Q

What does prolactin do?

A

Promoted milk production

106
Q

What does LH do?

A

Promotes rupture of follicles/increase in testosterone

107
Q

What does growth hormone do?

A

Promotes growth of cells/tissues

108
Q

What is oxytocin involved in and what does it stimulate?

A

Involved in reproductive and social behaviour by stimulating contractions

109
Q

The Pineal Gland is activated by which nervous system?

A

The sympathetic nervous system

110
Q

Which hormone does the pineal gland release at night?

A

Melatonin

111
Q

Which gland influences puberty and reproductive condition?

A

The Pineal Gland

112
Q

In humans, which rhythm is impacted by the pineal gland?

A

Sleep rhythms

PS1060 - Intro to Biological Psychology (10 decks)

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