4-mutualism Flashcards
why is reciprocity problematic?
delayed repayment
why is mutualism more widespread than reciprocity?
there is less opportunity to defect
what is mutualism?
both participants receive an immediate benefit
- interspecific
what is mutual benefit?
intraspecific, such as foraging efficiency, territory defence, mating and courtship
how do penguins gain mutual benefit?
huddling
give an example of mutualism involving humans
honey guide and honey hunters (spottiswoode et al 2016)- foraging partnership with brr hmm signal
give 2 improved foraging efficiency example of mutual benefit
cooperative hunting to catch larger prey
- wild dogs hunt in packs meaning 70% of them are successful
- humpback whales bubble net in groups, blowing bubbles to concentrate a shoal of fish in their bubble net, which can only be done in groups
how does foraging efficiency differ in lions that hunt alone vs larger groups?
alone: small prey such as warthogs
groups: large prey such as zebra and buffalos
describe the lion mutualism example for cooperative defence - mosser and packer 2009
- F live in prides
- F drive away intruder lions to have fewer neighbours
- this increases F reproductive success and lower mortality
- if more M neighbours wounding rate would be higher
what is delayed payback?
benefits to one partner may not always be immediate
when do M only form mutualistic coalitions with non kin?
when paternity shared evenly so there are mutual benefits among cooperating M
what is the long tailed manakin example of delayed pay off?
dance along the brainch and females visit these display sites to choose who to copulate with
give 3 points that mcdonald and potts 1994 discovered about long tailed manakin bird lek mating systems
- what was this due to?
- M acquire adult plumage at 4 years so dont display until this point
- M display in pairs (alpha and beta)
- alpha monopolises matings (98%) and F choose to mate with alphas
- due to mutualism with delayed pay off
describe the mutualism with delayed payoff for long tailed manakin bird lek mating system (6)
- F prefer coop display with orderly queue
- alpha M gets immediate pay off
- beta M inherits alpha status when alpha dies
- F faithful to lek sites
- beta M inherit mating success characteristic of the lek site
- beta M inherits mating success
in terms of mutualism what is a sentinel?
make themselves vulnerable to predators to warn conspecifics about approaching predators
what did Bednekoff 1997 argue about the safety of sentinels?
they are safer than foragers as are the first to know when and where a predator wil attack
describe the sentinel example for meerkats by clutton brock et al 1999 (5)
- meerkats dig for invertebrates but makes them vulnerable to predators
- sentinels stand on raised perch such as log
- sentinel behaviour optimal once stomach is full and no other animal is on guard
- sentinel guarding behaviour when well fed
- behaviour is mutualistic
what is the mutualism/ sentinel between meerkats and drongos, as studied by flower et al 2014? (6)
- drongos produce mimic alarm calls to scare species away from food that they then steal
- fear response maintained if call varied
- food theft is 23% biomass intake
- 6 drongo specific calls, 45 mimic calls
- after failed theft attempt will change type of false alarm call
- deceived may habituate to deceptive signals
according to wright et al 2001, what increased sentinel behaviour in arabian babblers?
supplementary feeding
what is the interspecific mutualism between fork tailed drongos and pied babblers and how is it unstable? - ridley and raihani 2006 (8)
- drongos forage on ground for invertebrates
- babblers disturb flying insects to drongos can swoop to catch them
- babblers gain a sentinel in return looking out for them
- drongos reduce the need for sentinels in small groups so can spend more time foraging
- in large groups babblers will become less responsive to drongo alarm calls and become more aggressive
- drongos give false alarm calls to take food from young babblers
- each party is trying to maximise their own reproductive success so unstable
- babblers will displace drongos when no longer need the mutualism
what is drongos giving false alarm calls to take food from young babblers known as?
kleptoparasitism
what are mutualistic relationships always liable to lapse into?
parasitism
in what 3 ways is cooperation maintained?
- facultative mutualism
- punishment/enforcement
- image scoring/reputation
what is facultative mutualism?
each party only engages if mutualism beneficial
- drongo
give 2 examples of interspecific mutualism in the form of cleaners and clients
- oxpeckers feed on ear wax and blood but is unstable as wounds kept open
- blue streaked cleaner wrasse eats 1200 parasites a day + inspects 2300 fish per day
how is the blue streaked cleaner wrasse mutualism with fish unstable?
cleaners tempted to cheat as they prefer fish mucus to parasites + remove fish scales
how can punishment prevent cleaner fish from cheating according to Bshary + Grutter 2005? (3)
- cleaners prefer prawn over flakes
- feeding on flakes (coop) is enforced by fleeing or punishment after 6 learning trials
- coop enforced by making cleaner fish feed on less preferred fish flakes or by chasing the fish as punishment
how may a reputation help?
building up a reputation for being cooperative means that others are more likely to cooperate with you
describe bshary and schaffer 2002 field observation for image scoring/reputation for cleaner client interaction (3)
- clients with a choice of cleaning station avoid cleaning stations with cheats
- 60% return to cleaning stations with positive last interaction/ removed parasites
- 5% return to stations with negative last interaction/cheating
describe bshary and grutter 2006 lab experiment for image scoring/reputation for cleaner client interaction (3)
- clients score cleaners coop image
- prefer coop cleaner fish >60% first year and >80% in second year of experiment
- cleaners more coop when being image scored/observed by another
why do mutualistic interactions require no special explanation?
immediate benefit to both partners
mutualists may be tempted to cheat but how are these costs reduced + how is coop maintained ?
by facultative association and coop maintained by punishment and need for good reputation
according to Cant 2011 what can promote coop and limit within group selfishness?
punishment and hidden threats
according to Cant 2011 why does conflict arise? + how can this be resolved?
individuals select to maximise share of inclusive fitness at a cost to others
+ bargain or use threats
according to Cant 2011 why would you expect strong selection to avoid triggering threats?
a stronger bargainer experiences a drop in fitness if threat is triggered
according to Cant 2011 what is the relationship between fish size and threat of eviction?
subordinates maintain their size as they adjust their growth rates to remain smaller to avoid being evicted
according to Cant 2011 what is the relationship between dominance and eviction in meerkats?
subordinates evicted until after dominant female given birth
- the eviction reduces the probability that the subordinate will reproduce successfully
according to Cant 2011 what is pay to stay in species such as cichlids?
subordinates may be forced to pay rent by helping
according to Cant 2011 in the cleaner and client relationship what is the main promoter of coop behaviour?
ability to exercise partner choice
according to Cant 2011 in hymenoptera queens and workers what is used to deter nestmates from reproducing?
aggression or egg eating
according to Cant 2011 how do hierarchies reduce costs of conflict?
are stabilised by threats that are rarely exercised
according to Cant 2011 what is the impact of a threat and when is this effect biggest?
fitness cost
when low fitness value of other options
according to Cant 2011 what does the threat need to be?
accurately targeted so suffer consequences of own actions
according to clutton-brock 2009 what are interactions between non kin maintained by?
mutualism, coercion, inducement
according to clutton-brock 2009 what is the likely explanation for the difference between humans and primates for assisting?
the reliable exchange of valuable resources requires language to establish intentions
according to west et al 2007 describe how coop can be found at all levels of biological organisation
genes coop in genomes
cells coop to make multicellular organisms
according to west et al 2007 in theory why should coop be selected against?
reduces relative fitness
according to west et al 2007 what can limited dispersal generate?
high relatedness
according to west et al 2007 when is enforcement favoured?
if provides indirect fitness benefits such as reducing fitness of individuals competing with relatives
