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A-Level Biology > 3.2.1 Cell Structure: 3.2.1.1 Structure of eukaryotic cells > Flashcards

3.2.1 Cell Structure: 3.2.1.1 Structure of eukaryotic cells Flashcards

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1
Q

What do eukaryotic cells in complex multicellular organisms do?

A

Specialise to their specific function

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1
Q

Levels of organisation

A

Specialised cells -> tissues -> organs -> organ system

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2
Q

Organelles in plant cells

A
  • Cell-surface membrane
  • Cell wall
  • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
  • Rough endoplasmic reticulum
  • Nucleus
  • Nucleolus
  • Nuclear envelope
  • mitochondria
  • ribosomes
  • Golgi apparatus
  • Vacuole
  • Chloroplast
  • Cytoplasm
  • Plasmodesma
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3
Q

Organelles in animal cells

A
  • Cell-surface membrane
  • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
  • Rough endoplasmic reticulum
  • Nucleus
  • Nucleolus
  • Nuclear envelope
  • mitochondria
  • ribosomes
  • Golgi apparatus
  • Lysosome
  • Cytoplasm
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4
Q

Nucleus structure

A

10-20 μm diameter

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5
Q

Nucleus function

A
  • Acts as a control centre of the cell through the production of mRNA and tRNA
  • retains genetic material in the cell as DNA + chromosomes
  • manufactures rRNA and ribosomes
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6
Q

Nucleolus

A
  • small spherical region within the cytoplasm
  • manufactures RNA and assembles ribosomes
  • may be more than 1 in a nucleus
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7
Q

Nucleoplasm

A

Granular + jelly like material which makes up bulk of the nucleus

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8
Q

Nuclear membrane/envelope

A
  • Double membrane surrounding the nucleus
  • Outer membrane is continuous with RER
  • Controls entry + exit of materials in + out of the nucleus
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9
Q

Nuclear pores

A
  • Allow the passage of large molecules (e.g. mRNA) out of the nucleus
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10
Q

Diameter of nuclear pore

A

40-100μm

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11
Q

Mitochondrion structure

A
  • Rod-shaped
    *1-10 μm diameter
  • Has a double membrane which controls movement of substances in + out of the mitochondria
  • Inner membrane is folded to form extensions called cristae
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12
Q

Mitochondrion function

A
  • Site of aerobic respiration
  • where energy is released/ATP is produced
  • high in number as lots of ATP required for metabolic reactions
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13
Q

Cristae structure

A
  • extension of inner membrane of mitochondrion
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14
Q

Cristae function

A

provides a large S.A. for attachment of enzymes + other proteins involved in the reaction

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15
Q

Matrix

A

inner fluids which contains lipids, proteins, ribosomes, DNA

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16
Q

Chloroplasts structure

A
  • disc-shaped
  • chloroplasts envelope
  • grana
  • stroma
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17
Q

Chloroplasts function

A

carry out photosynthesis

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18
Q

Chloroplast envelope

A
  • Double plasma membrane that surrounds the chloroplast
  • Highly selective
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19
Q

Grana structure

A
  • stacks of thylakoids
  • where 1st stage of photosynthesis takes place
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20
Q

Thylakoids

A

Disc-like structures containing chlorophyll

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21
Q

Adaptations of grana

A
  • Large S.A. for attachment of chlorophyll
  • fluid in the stroma contains all enzymes needed to make sugars in 2nd stage of photosynthesis
  • chloroplasts contain both DNA + ribosomes so proteins for photosynthesis can be easily be manufactured
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22
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum structure

A
  • Continuous with outer nucleur membrane
  • Has ribosomes on the outer membrane
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23
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum: function

A
  • provide large S.A or synthesis of proteins + glycoproteins
  • provide a pathway for transport of materials (mainly proteins) out of the cell
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24
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: structure

A

no ribosomes on surface and more tubular

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25
Q

Golgi apparatus: structure

A

made up of cisternae (flattened sacs) with vesicles (small rounded hollow structures)

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25
Q

Golgi apparatus: process

A
  1. Proteins + lipids produced by the ER are passed through the Golgi apparatus in strict sequence
  2. Golgi apparatus modifies these (by adding non-protein components e.g. carbohydrates to them)
  3. Golgi apparatus labels them -> allows them to be accurately sorted + sent to their correct destination
  4. These modified + labelled proteins + lipids are transported in Golgi vesicles (which are regularly pinched off the ends of the Golgi cisternae)
  5. These vesicles (phagosomes formed in phagocytosis) may move to the cell surface, where they fuse with the membrane + release their contents to the outside
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25
Q

Golgi apparatus: functions

A
  • add carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins
  • produce secretory enzymes (e.g. those secreted by the pancreas)
  • secrete carbohydrates (e.g. those in the plant cell wall)
  • form lysosomes
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25
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: function

A

synthesise, store and transport lipids + carbohydrates

26
Q

Lysosomes: structure

A
  • Formed when vesicles produced by the Golgi apparatus contain enzymes (e.g. protease, lipase, lyzozymes)
  • 50 μm diameter
  • isolate the enzymes from the rest of the cell before releasing to the outside or into a phagocytic vesicle in the cell wall
27
Q

Lysosymes

A

enzymes that hydrolyse the cell walls of certain bacteria

28
Q

Lysosomes process

A
  1. Primary lysosymes formed by the Golgi apparatus contain hydrolytic enzymes
  2. These enxymes hydrolyse the particle in the vesicle
  3. Soluble products are absorbed into cytoplasm. Insoluble debris is egested
29
Q

Lysosomes: functions

A
  • hydrolyse material ingested by phagocytic cells (e.g. white blood cells)
  • release enzymes in the outside of the cell (exocytosis) to destroy material around the cell
  • digest worn out organelles so that useful chemicals that they are made of can be recycled
  • completely break down dead cells (autolysis)
30
Q

Number of lysosomes in phagocytic cells

A

High

31
Q

Ribosomes: structure

A
  • Small cytoplasmic granules in cytoplasm or in RER
  • 2 subunits: 1 large, 1 small -> both containing ribosomal RNA and protein
32
Q

Types of ribosomes

A
  • 80S = in eukaryotic cells (bigger)
  • 70S = in prokaryotic cells, mitochondria, chloroplasts (smaller)
33
Q

Cell wall: structure

A

contain microfibrilis

34
Q

Cell wall: function

A
  • provides mechanical strength to prevent the cell from bursting due to osmotic entry of water
  • gives mechanical strength to plant
  • allows water to pass through it
35
Q

Vacuole: structure

A
  • fluid filled sac bound by a single membrane (tonoplast)
  • contains mineral salts, sugars, amino acids, wastes
36
Q

Vacuole: function

A
  • support herbaceous plant
  • sugars + amino acids act as temporary food store
37
Q

Microscopes

A

instruments that produce a magnified image of an object

38
Q

Image

A

the appearance of the material under the microscope

39
Q

Object

A

material under microscope

40
Q

Magnification

A

how many times bigger the image is when compared to an object

41
Q

Magnification equation

A

size of image/size of real object

  • must be the same units
42
Q

Resolution/resolving power

A
  • minimum distance apart that 2 objects can be in order for them to appear as separate items
  • dependant on the wavelength or radiation used
  • each microscope has a limit of resolution
43
Q

Relationship between resolution and clarity

A

Higher resolution, higher clarity

44
Q

Cell fractionation

A

Process where cells are broken up and the different organelles in the cell are separated out

45
Q

Before cell fractionation:

A

The tissue is placed in a solution which is:
* Cold
* Buffered
* Isotonic

46
Q

Solution for cell fractionation: cold

A

To reduce enzyme activity that might break down organelles

47
Q

Solution for cell fractionation: buffered

A

To prevent pH changes which could alter the organelle’s structure or affect enzyme functionality

48
Q

Solution for cell fractionation: isotonic

A

same water potential as tissue, to prevent osmotic gain or loss of water causing bursting or shrinking of organelle

49
Q

Stages of cell fractionation

A
  1. Homogenization
  2. Ultracentrifugation
50
Q

Stages of cell fractionation: Homogenisation

A
  1. Cells are broken up in a homogeniser (blender) to release organelles
  2. The homogenate (resultant fluid) is filtered to remove any complete cells or large pieces of debris
51
Q

Ultracentrifugation definition

A

Process by which fragments in the filtered homogenate are separated in a centrifuge machine

52
Q

Centrifuge

A
  • Spins tubes of homogenate at high speed to create a centrifugal force
  • Tubes must be places at opposite ends of the centrifuge to balance out the force
53
Q

Stages of cell fractionation: Ultracentrifugation

A
  1. Tube of filtered homogenate is placed in a centrifuge and spun at low speed
  2. The heaviest organelles (nuclei) go to the bottom and form a sediment
  3. The fluid at the top (supernatant) is removed and transferred to a different tube

this process is repeated with an increase in speed each time and for a longer duration

54
Q

Light microscope

A
  • Uses wavelength of light (long wavelength) to form an image
  • Can see organelles
55
Q

What organelles can be seen under a light microscope

A

Cell wall
Nucleus
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm

56
Q

Electron microscope

A
  • Uses wavelength of electron beams (short wavelength) to form an image
  • As electrons have a negative charge, they can be focussed using electromagnets
  • object is put in a vacuum - as electrons can be absorbed or deflected by air
57
Q

2 types of electron microscope

A
  • Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
  • Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
58
Q

Transmission electron microscope

A
  • produces a beam of electrons which is focussed on a specimen by a condenser magnet
  • the beam passes through thin parts of the specimen = bright, and the beam is absorbed by thick parts of the specimen = dark
59
Q

Photomicrograph (TEM)

A

photograph of image produced on screen

60
Q

Reasons why highest resolution cannot always be achieved in transmission electron microscope

A
  • difficulties preparing the specimen
  • high electron beam required may destroy the specimen
61
Q

Limitations of transmission electron microscope

A
  • Whole system must be in a vacuum
  • Specimen must be thin
  • Image not in colour
  • Image may contain artefacts due to specimen preparation but do not exist in original sample
  • Initial image is 2D but can be built into 3D by taking a series of sections through a specimen
62
Q

Limitations of scanning electron microscope (SEM)

A

Same as TEM, but specimens do not need to be thin

63
Q

Scanning electron microscope

A
  • produces a beam of electrons which is directed on the surface of the specimen from above
  • beam is passed back + forward across the specimen in a regular pattern
  • the electrons are scattered by the specimen (depending on the contours in the specimen -> can be built into 3D image on computer
64
Q

Resolving power of TEM vs SEM

A

SEM has a lower resolving power

65
Q

Eyepiece graticule

A

used to measure the size of objects using a light microscope

66
Q

Stage micrometer

A

microscope slide used to calibrate the eyepiece graticule

A-Level Biology (20 decks)

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