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Biology Year 1 > 3.2 Transport in Animals > Flashcards

3.2 Transport in Animals Flashcards

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1
Q

uses of TS

A

-supply oxygen to body

-carry nutrients to tissues + cells

-carries + removes waste products of metabolism

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2
Q

features of good transport system

A

Have a meduim - substance that carries substances + molecules

Have a pump - mechanism to create pressure to move fluid around system

Have vessels - tubes which carry transport meduim

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3
Q

what is mass flow system

A

Bulk movement of materials which also involves a mechanism for moving substance around the body

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4
Q

what is single CS

A

The blood passes through the heart once during one complete circuit of the body

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5
Q

Single Circulatory System of fish

A
  • Deoxygenated blood is pumped from heart to gills

-The gills are the site of gas exchange where O2 + CO2 are exchanged with atmosphere and the blood

-The oxygenated blood flows from gills to rest of the body ; travels through capillaries in organs, delivering oxygen + nutrients

-The blood returns to heart

The heart only has one atruim + ventricle

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6
Q

what is the structure of the heart of those animals with single CS (Fish)

A

The heart only has one atruim + ventricle

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7
Q

what is double CS

A

blood passes through the heart twice during one complete one circuit of the body

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8
Q

steps in double CS

A
  • Deoxygenated blood from right side of heart leaves and travels to lungs

-The blood returns to left side of heart before being pumped around the whole body

  • Once blood has passed all the other organs + tissues it returns to the right side of heart .
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9
Q

Qualities of SCS

A
  • Lower Pressure
  • Fluid flows much slower
  • Less active
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10
Q

Qualities of DCS

A
  • Higher Pressure
  • Faster blood flow
  • More Active
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11
Q

what is closed system

A

In a closed circulatory system, blood is pumped around the body and is always contained within a network of blood vessels

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12
Q

what does close system cause

A

creates a higher pressure, as well as having faster flow and delivering/removing respiratory gases quicker

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13
Q

what is open system

A

in an open circulatory system, blood is not contained within blood vessels but is pumped directly into body cavities

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14
Q

Circulatory System in Insects

A

-Insects have one main blood vessel - the dorsal vessel

-The tubular heart in the abdomen pumps haemolymph (this is what blood in insects is called) into the dorsal vessel

-The dorsal vessel delivers the haemolymph into the haemocoel (body cavity)

-Haemolymph surrounds the organs and eventually enters the heart via one-way valves called ostia

-Unlike the blood in a mammal’s circulatory system, the haemolymph is not specifically directed towards any organs in an insect

-The haemolymph doesn’t carry oxygen or carbon dioxide

-Insects can survive with this less efficient circulatory system because oxygen is delivered directly to their tissues via tracheae (a system of tubes) that connect directly to the outside

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15
Q

what is the inner layer of blood vessels and their functions

A

-Tunica Intima (inner): thin layer of elastic tissue which allow stretching & recoiling which makes the walls flexible to help maintain blood pressure.
-Made up of an endothelial layer which is a layer of elastic fibres & connective tissues. The endothelium is one cell thick and lines the lumen of all blood vessels. It is very smooth and reduces friction for free blood flow

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16
Q

what is the middle layer of the blood vessels & it’s function

A

Tunica Media (Middle): Thicker layer of smooth muscle which contracts & relaxes to change diameter of lumen

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17
Q

What is the outer layer of blood vessels & it’s function

A

Tunica Adventia (Outer): Thick layer of collagen + elastic tissues to provide structural support to help maintain shape + volume of vessel

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18
Q

what is lumen

A

a passageway to carry blood, fluids, gases and other substances

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19
Q

Structure & Function of arteries

A
  • Transport blood away from heart at high pressures
  • Arteries have a thick tunica media
  • The layer of muscle cells strengthens the arteries so they can withstand high pressure. It also enables them to contract and narrow the lumen for reduced blood flow
  • The elastic tissue helps to maintain blood pressure in the arteries. It stretches and recoils to even out any fluctuations in pressure
  • The tunica adventitia covers the exterior of the artery and is mostly made up of collagen.
  • Collagen is a strong protein that protects blood vessels from damage by over-stretching
  • Arteries have a narrow lumen which helps to maintain a high blood pressure
  • A pulse is present in arteries
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20
Q

structure & function of arterioles

A

-Link Arteries & Capillaries
-Arterioles possess more smooth muscle that means they can constrict/dilate and partially cut off blood flow to specific organs
-Unlike arteries, arterioles have a lower proportion of elastic fibres and many muscle cells
-The presence of muscle cells allows them to contract and close their lumen to stop and regulate blood flow

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21
Q

Structure & function of veins

A

-Veins return blood to the heart
-They receive blood that has passed through capillary networks (blood pressure is very low and it must be returned to the heart)
-The tunica media is much thinner in veins
-There is no need for a thick muscular layer as veins don’t have to withstand high pressure
-The lumen of the vein is much larger than that of an artery
-A larger lumen helps to ensure that blood returns to the heart at an adequate speed
-A large lumen reduces friction between the blood and the endothelial layer of the vein
-The rate of blood flow is slower in veins, but a larger lumen means the volume of blood delivered per unit of time is equal
-Veins contain valves
These prevent the backflow of blood, helping return blood to the heart
-A pulse is absent in veins

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22
Q

structure and function of venules

A

-Venules connect the capillaries to the veins
-They have few or no elastic fibres and a large lumen
-As the blood is at low pressure after passing through the capillaries there is no need for a muscular layer

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23
Q

Structure & function of vessels

A

Transport blood, nutrients and oxygen to cells in organs and body system
Capillaries are a type of blood vessel present in the circulatory system
They have thin walls which are “leaky”, allowing substances to leave the blood to reach the body’s tissues
They can form networks called capillary beds which are very important exchange surfaces within the circulatory system

Capillaries have a very small diameter (lumen)
This forces the blood to travel slowly which provides more opportunity for diffusion to occur
A large number of capillaries branch between cells
Substances can diffuse between the blood and cells quickly as there is a short diffusion distance
The wall of the capillary is made solely from a single layer of endothelial cells (this layer also lines the lumen in arteries and veins)
The wall is only one cell thick – this reduces the diffusion distance for oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the tissues of the body
The cells of the wall have gaps called pores which allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid
White blood cells can combat infection in affected tissues by squeezing through the intercellular junctions in the capillary walls

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24
Q

what is plasma

A

Straw coloured liquid that constitutes around 55% of the blood composed of water, nutrients, hormones

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25
Q

what is tissue fluid

A

watery substance that bathes the cells of tissue. This is formed from blood plasma that moves out of capillaries

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26
Q

what is hydrostatic pressure

A

pressure exerted by a fluid , eg the blood pressure generated by contractions of heart muscle

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27
Q

what is oncotic pressure

A

pressure exerted by the tendancy of water to move into the blood by osmosis

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28
Q

what happens in the arterial end to form tissue fluid

A

-At arterial end of a capillary the hydrostatic pressure is greater than oncotic pressure which forces fluid out of the capillary

-Protein + RBC remain in blood as they are to big to pass through gaps in the capillary wall

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29
Q

what happens in venous end in the formation of tissue fluid

A

-At venous end of capillary the hydrostatic pressure within capillary is reduced due to increased distance from hearnt and the slowing of the blood flow as it passes through capillary

-The oncotic pressure stays the same

-Since oncotic pressure is higher than hydrostatic pressure the water flows back into capillary from tissue fluid

-90% of the fluid lost at arterial end returns back into venous end

-The other 10% is collected by lymph vessel and returned to circulatory system

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30
Q

what is lymph

A

when some fluid doesn’t return back to the capillaries it’s drained into closed ended vessels

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31
Q

what does lymph have less of than blood or tissue fluid

A

less Oxygen
Less nutrients

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32
Q

what does lymph have more of when compared to blood or tissue fluid and why

A

more fatty acids which have been absorbed into lymph from villi of small intestine

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33
Q

how is lymph transported

A

through squeezing of muscles

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34
Q

what do they contain to prevent backflow

A

valves

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35
Q

what do lymph vessels have along them

A

Lymph Nodes

36
Q

what happens in lymph nodes

A
  • There is a build up of lymphocytes which are used in response to an infection by producing anti-bodies which are passed into blood .
37
Q

what do lymph nodes do to lymph as they pass along

A

check for bacteria and intercept them as well as ingest the bacteria using phagocytes

38
Q

what is a sign of infection

A

enlarged / swelled up lymph nodes

39
Q

what is cardiac muscle & it’s function

A

These are the thick layer of muscle that makes up the wall of the heart

Its myogenic meaning it can contract and relax without nervous of hormone stimulation

It never fatigues if it has supply of oxygen

40
Q

what are coronary arteries & what do they do

A

Branch of from the Aorta

Supply cardiac muscles with oxygenated blood

If they get blocked the cardiac muscle won’t receive oxygen and won’t be able to respire which would kill the cells resulting in myocardial infarction

41
Q

why do atria have thinner walls

A

This is because they don’t need to contract as hard as they aren’t pumping blood far (only to ventricles)

42
Q

what do atria have

A

They have elastic walls to stretch when the blood enters

43
Q

why do ventricles have thicker walls

A

The ventricles have much thicker walls to enable a bigger contraction. This creates a higher blood pressure to enable the blood to flow longer distances (to the lungs & the rest of the body)

44
Q

what does the right ventricle do and why does it have thinner walls when compared to left ventricle

A

The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs. This needs to be at a lower pressure to prevent damage to capillaries in the lungs, so blood flow slowly to allow time for gas exchange therefore thinner muscular walls in comparison to the left ventricle.

45
Q

what does left ventricle do & why does it need thicker walls

A

Pumps blood to the body. This needs to be at a higher pressure to ensure blood reaches all the cells in the body. Therefore, much take a muscular wall in comparison to the right ventricle to enable larger contractions of the muscles to create higher pressure.

46
Q

what are the 2 veins in the heart and what do they do

A
  1. The vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from the body into the right atrium. Has a superior (at top of heart) and an inferior (at bottom of heart) vena cava.
  2. The pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. Has right & left pulmonary veins.
47
Q

what are the 2 arteries in the heart and what do they do

A

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs to become oxygenated. Has left and right pulmonary arteries.

The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.

48
Q

when do valves open or close

A

The valves in the heart open when the pressure of the blood behind them is greater than the pressure in front of them.

The valves in the heart closed when the pressure of blood in front of them is greater than the pressure behind them.

49
Q

why are valves important
(3)

A
  • Those are important for maintaining the correct pressure in each of the chambers in the heart and to keep it flowing in the right direction.
  • Prevent Back flow
  • ensure blood is flowing in right direction
50
Q

what are the 4 valves and what does each do

A

The right atrium and right ventricle are separated by the arterial ventricular valve, which is otherwise known as the tricuspid valve.

The left atrium and left ventricle are separated by the mitral valve, which is otherwise known as the bicuspid valve.

The right ventricle and pulmonary artery are separated by the pulmonary valve.

The left ventricle and aorta are separated by the aortic valve.

51
Q

what is the difference between tricuspid and bicuspid valve

A

The tricuspid valve has 3 flaps while the bicuspid valve has 2 flaps

52
Q

what is the septum & what does it do

A

Separates the deoxygenated and oxygenated blood.

Maintains high concentration of oxygen in oxygenated blood to maintain concentration gradient to enable diffusion respiring cells.

53
Q

what is the order of steps in heart

A

-Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium of the heart from the upper body and head in the superior vena cava & from the lower body in the inferior vena cava at relatively low pressure.

  • As the blood flows in, slight pressure builds up until the atrioventricular valve opens to let blood pass into the right ventricle. When both the atrium and ventricle are filled with blood, the atrium contracts, forcing all the blood into right ventricle and stretching the ventricle walls.

-As the right ventricle start to contract, the tricuspid valve closes, preventing any backflow of blood to the atrium. The tendinous chords make sure that the valves are not turned inside out by the pressures exerted when ventricles contract.

-The right ventricle contracts fully and pumps deoxygenated blood through the semi lunar valve into the pulmonary artery which transports it to the capillary. The semi lunar valve prevents back flow of blood into the heart.

-At the same time, oxygenated blood from the lungs entered the left atrium from pulmonary vein. As pressure in the atrium builds, the bicuspid valve opens between the left atrium and the left ventricle.

-This causes the ventricle to fill with oxygenated blood. When both the atrium and ventricle are full, the atrium contracts, forcing all the oxygenated blood into the left ventricle.

-The left ventricle then contracts and pumps oxygenated blood through the semi lunar valve, into the aorta and around the body. As the ventricle contracts, that right cuspid valve closes, preventing any backflow of blood.

54
Q

what happens in diatsole

A

The atria + ventricular muscles are relaxed . This is when blood will enter the atria via the vena cava + pulmonary vein.The blood flowing into the atria increases the pressure within the atria

55
Q

what happens in the atrial systole

A

The ventricles are still relaxed. The atria muscular walls contract increasing the pressure futher. This causes the atrioventricular valves to open and blood to flow into ventricules. The ventricular muscular walls are relaxed ( ventricular diastole )

56
Q

what happens in ventricular systole

A

After a short delay, the ventricle muscular walls contract, increasing the pressure beyond that of the atria this causes the artrioventricular valves to close and the semi lunar values to open the blood is pushed out the ventricles into the pulmonary arteries + aorta

57
Q

cardiac output equation

A

HR X Stroke Volume

58
Q

what is cardiac output

A

The volume of blood which leaves one of the ventricles in one minute

59
Q

what is the HR

A

Is the beats of the heart per minute

60
Q

what is stroke volume

A

Is the volume of blood that leaves the heart each beat dm3

61
Q

what does it mean by the heart being myogenic and how is it helpful

A

It has its own intrinsic rhythm. This means that the body doesn’t have to waste resources on maintaining the heart’s rhythm.

62
Q

the 4 steps of a cardiac cycle

A

The wave of electrical excitation begins at the area of the pacemaker called the sinoatrial node (SAN) causing the atria to contract to initiate heartbeat. A layer of non-conducting tissue prevents the excitation passing directly to ventricle.

The electrical activity from SAN is picked up by the atrioventricular node. The VAN imposes a short delay to ensure that Atria have stopped contracting. It stimulates the bundle of His, a bundle of conducting tissue made-up of fibres known as Purkyne fibres, which penetrates through septum between ventricles.

The bundle of his splits into two branches and conducts the wave of excitation to apex of heart.

At the apex, the Purkyne fibres spread through the walls of the ventricles on both sides. The spread of excitation triggers contraction of ventricles.

63
Q

what is an ECG

A

measures wave of depolarization to interpret + diagnose irregularities in heart rhythms which id done by sticking electrodes onto skin

64
Q

explain tachycardia

A

When the heart is beating over 100 BPM. This is no more during exercise, but abnormally fast while at rest.

65
Q

explain Bradycardia

A

When the heart is beating less than 60 BPM. Many people have this because their fit as their cardiac muscle can contract harder and therefore fewer contractions are required. If heart rate drops further, artificial pacemaker would be required.

66
Q

explain arterial fibrilation

A

Irregular heart rhythms.

67
Q

explain ectopic heartbeat

A

When there are additional heartbeats that aren’t in rhythm, most people have this at least once a day. They are serious if they become more frequent.

68
Q

explain structure and facts about haemoglobin (5)

A

Red pigment, which carries oxygen.

Large globular protein.

Has four polypeptide chains.

Each Haem group in each chain has a prosthetic group of iron ion.

Each haem group binds to an oxygen molecule.

69
Q

what is the equation for haemoglobin

A

Hb + O2 ⇌ Hb(O2)4

70
Q

2 adaptations of haemoglobin

A

Due to its bio concave disc shape it increases the surface area which increases diffusion. Also allows them to pass through narrow capillaries.

The fact it has no nucleus means there’s more haemoglobin.

71
Q

what happens in the lungs to allow haemoglobin to transport oxygen

A

Oxygen level in cytoplasm of red blood cells is low.

There is a steep concentration gradient between inside of red blood cell and air in alveoli

Oxygen diffuses into red blood cell and binds to the haemoglobin molecule.

When oxygen molecule binds to 1 subunit of haemoglobin, it rotates the shape slightly (conformational change) Such that the affinity for oxygen increases (known as cooperative binding or positive cooperativity)

As haemoglobin affinity for oxygen has increased it is easier for 2nd and that oxygen molecule to associate with haem group

Since the oxygen is bound to haemoglobin, the concentration of oxygen in cytoplasm of red blood cell is still low, which maintains the steep concentration gradient until the haemoglobin is fully saturated.

Oxygen level in cytoplasm of respiring cells is lower than in red blood cell. As a result, the oxygen disassociates from haemoglobin and diffuses out of red blood cell into tissue fluid down the concentration gradient.

When the first oxygen molecule is released, the conformational change takes place this decreases affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen making this association of remaining oxygen easier.

72
Q

what does oxygen dissassociation curve show

A

shows the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen at different levels of partial pressures of oxygen

73
Q

what happens when partial pressure of oxygen is low

A

haemoglobin doesn’t readily take up oxygen molecules

74
Q

what happens when PP of oxygen is increased

A

due to cooperative binding the affinity for oxygen increaes due to conformational changes which allows for the 2nd & 3rd oxygen molecules to be taken readily and more easily.

75
Q

what happens after 3 oxygen molecules are taken up by haemoglobin

A

it become difficult to take the 4th molecule

76
Q

what does it mean if the graph levels of

A

The curve levels off at the highest partial pressure of oxygen because all the haem groups are bound to oxygen & so the haemoglobin is saturated and can’t take up anymore.

77
Q

where do we find the part of the body at the lower end of oxygen dissassociation curve

A
  • Respiring tissue / cell as the partial pressure for oxygen is lower
78
Q

where do we find the part of the body which represents the higher part of the oxygen dissassociation curve

A
  • Lungs as there is high partial pressure for oxygen
79
Q

what 2 substances does Haemoglobin transport

A

Oxygen & Carbon dioxide

80
Q

what is another job for haemoglobin for the blood

A
  • Assists in buffering by maintaining constant blood pH. - - If the pH is too low it will increase it back by releasing H+ ions.
  • If the pH is too high it will decrease it by taking up H+ ions
81
Q

what are the 3 ways Carbon Dioxide is transported

A
  1. 5% of CO2 released by respiring cells is transported in solution in plasma
  2. 10% binds to amino acid groups of haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin
  3. 85% is transported as hydrogen carbonate ions
82
Q

how is hydrogen carbonate formed

A
  • Carbon dioxide from respiring cells diffuses into blood plasma and then into red blood cells, where some combined with water to form carbonate acid using carbonate anhydrase as a catalyst.
  • The carbonate acid disassociates to release hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate ions.
  • The hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse out the red blood cell into plasma.
  • Chloride ions from plasma diffuses into the cell to maintain electrical balance, which is known as chloride shift.
  • Hydrogen ions are taken up by haemoglobin to form haemoglobin acid.
  • This prevents the inside of the cell becoming too acidic.
83
Q

how is the fetal haemoglobin curve different

A

shifted to the left

84
Q

why is the fetal haemoglobin shifted towards left

A

the fetal Hb has higher affinity for oxygen than adult Hb, so it removes oxygen from maternal blood to fetal blood through placenta

85
Q

what is the bohr effect

A

Higher level of CO2 present in blood means that it reduce oxygen saturation and shifts the oxygen disassociation curve towards the right

86
Q

explain the Bohr effect

A

When there is an increase in carbon dioxide in the blood, for example one exercising, the pH of the blood is lowered.

This reduces the affinity for oxygen due to haemoglobin changing shape due to the lower pH and it being a protein.

This makes it harder for molecules like oxygen to bind to it.

This is helpful as it increases oxygen that’s unloaded at that issue.

This oxygen is then used up for aspiring cells or tissues.

Biology Year 1 (16 decks)

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