3.2 relationships

Question 1

sexual selection

Answer 1

according to evolutionary psychology, partner preferences are driven by sexual selection. this means that both males and females choose partners in order to maximise their chances of reproductive success.

individuals with traits that maximise reproductive success (e.g. strength, height, aggression, wide hips etc.) are more likely to survive and pass on the genes responsible for their success.

Question 2

difference in male and female selection

Answer 2

males have gametes (sperm cells), which are able to reproduce quickly with little energy expenditure. female gametes (eggs or ova) are much less plentiful and require far more energy to produce.

this difference (anisogamy) means that males and females use distinct strategies to choose a partner. generally males use intra-sexual selection and females use inter-sexual selection.

Question 3

males: intra-sexual selection

Answer 3

intra-sexual selection is where members of one sex (usually male) compete with one another for access to the other sex.

this leads to male-female dimorphism, which is the accentuation of secondary sexual characteristics in those with greater reproductive fitness.

Question 4

males: anisogamy

Answer 4

anisogamy suggests that a male’s best evolutionary strategy is to have as many partners as possible.

males must compete with other males to present themselves as the most attractive mate to fertile female partners.

Question 5

males: mate-guarding

Answer 5

males might engage in mate guarding where they guard their female partner to prevent them mating with anyone else.

males are very fearful of having to raise another man’s child, this is called cuckoldry.

Question 6

females: inter-sexual selection

Answer 6

inter-sexual selection is where members of one sex (usually female) choose from available prospective mates (usually males) according to attractiveness.

Question 7

females: anisogamy

Answer 7

anisogamy suggests that a woman’s best evolutionary strategy is to be selective when choosing a partner.

females will tend to seek a male who displays characteristics of physical health, high status, and resources. thus the male partner is able to protect them and provide for their children.

although this ability may have equated to muscular strength in our evolutionary past, in modern society it is more likely to relate to occupation, social class and wealth.

Question 8

two strengths of evolutionary explanations

Answer 8

+ buss (1989) conducted a survey of over 10K adults in 33 countries and found that females reported valuing resource-based characteristics (such as occupation) whilst men valued good looks and preferred younger partners.

+ clark and hatfield (1989) conducted a now infamous study where male and female psychology students were asked to approach opposite-sex students of florida state university. they asked them for one of three things: to go on a date, back to their apartment, or bed with them.

about 50% of both men and women agreed to the date.

69% of men agreed to visit the apartment and 75% agreed to go to bed with them.

only 6% of women agreed to go to the apartment and 0% accepted the more intimate offer.

Question 9

three weaknesses of evolutionary explanations

Answer 9

• the evolutionary approach is deterministic suggesting that we have little free-will in partner choice. however, everyday experience tells us we do have some control over our partner preferences.
• evolutionary approaches to mate preferences are socially sensitive in that they promote traditional (sexist) views regarding what are ‘natural’ male and female behaviours which do not apply to modern society. women are now more career orientated and independent therefore will not look for resourceful partners as much as they may have had to in decades past. the availability of contraception means that evolutionary pressures are less relevant.
• evolutionary theory makes little attempt to explain other types of relationships, e.g. non-heterosexual relationships, and cultural variations in relationships which exist across the world, like arranged marriages

Question 10

self-disclosure

Answer 10

several factors affect attraction in romantic relationships, one of these factors is self-disclosure.

this is the revealing of personal information, such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person.

Question 11

altman and taylor (1973)

Answer 11

self-disclosure is a central concept in social penetration theory proposed by altman and taylor (1973).

this theory claims that by gradually revealing emotions and experiences to their partner, couples gain a greater understanding of each other and display trust. therefore, self-disclosure will increase attraction.

Question 12

self disclosure levels

Answer 12

as people build trust in their partner, the breadth and depth of self-disclosure will increase.

at first, people only disclose superficial details about themselves, such as hobbies and interests, and gradually reveal more intimate details, such as family values and difficult experiences.

however, self-disclosing too quickly (e.g. on a first date) can reduce attraction.

people expect the same level of self-disclosure from others as they actually give. this is known as reciprocal self-disclosure.

Question 13

three strengths of self-disclosure

Answer 13

+ tal-or (2015) conducted research that agrees that self-disclosure is a gradual process that can affect attraction in romantic relationships. analysis of reality TV shows like big brother revealed that viewers did not like contestants who self-disclosed early on, and preferred those who self-disclosed gradually. this evidence is also extremely recent, which makes it more relevant in todays changing world.

+ altman and taylor (1973) found that self-disclosure on the first date is inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels. the person who was self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and not very likeable.

+ kito (2010) found research evidence to support the idea of self-disclosure across different cultures. they investigated japanese and american students in different types of relationships, and found that self-disclosure was high for students in romantic relationships that were heterosexual.

Question 14

two weaknesses of self-disclosure

Answer 14

• sprecher (2013) found research evidence that the level (or quality) of self-disclosure received is the best predictor of liking and loving. this goes against the idea of reciprocal self-disclosure, which states that the amount of self disclosure given should be the amount that is received in order to be considered an attractive partner.
• it seems unlikely that attraction to a potential partner is based on self-disclosure alone. self-disclosure might be an important element, but other factors are also needed in order to increase attraction, such as physical attraction, similarity of attitudes and complementarity of needs.

Question 15

physical attractiveness

Answer 15

physical attractiveness affects attraction in romantic relationships.

men place a great deal of importance on physical attractiveness when choosing a female partner in both the short-term and the long-term.

research shows that women, however, value physical attractiveness when choosing a male partner in the short-term rather than the long-term.

what is considered to be physically attractive varies across culture and time.

Question 16

halo effect

Answer 16

the halo effect is when the general impression of a person is incorrectly formed from one characteristic alone.

physically attractive people are often seen as more sociable, optimistic, successful and trustworthy.

people tend to behave positively towards people who are physically attractive and this creates a self-fulfilling prophecy where the physically attractive person behaves even more positively because of the positive attention they receive.

Question 17

evaluate the halo effect

Answer 17

+ palmer and peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable than unattractive people. the halo effect was so powerful that it persisted even when participants found out that the physically attractive person had no expertise in politics.

• towhey (1979) asked male and female participants to rate how much they liked an individual based on a photograph. participants also completed a MACHO scale which measured sexist attitudes and behaviour.

it was found that participants who scored highly on the MACHO scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness. those who scored low on the questionnaire did not value physical attractiveness.

therefore, the influence of physical attractiveness is moderated by other factors (e.g. personality).

Question 18

the matching hypothesis

Answer 18

when initiating romantic relationships, individuals seek partners who have the same social desirability as themselves.

physical attractiveness becomes the major determining factor as it is an accessible way for each person to rate the other person as a potential partner before forming a relationship.

most people would prefer to form a relationship with someone who is physically attractive, but in order to not be rejected, many people will approach others who are of a similar level of attractiveness to themselves.

Question 19

evaluate the matching hypothesis

Answer 19

+ fangold (1988) found supportive evidence for the matching hypothesis by carrying out a meta-analysis of 17 studies using real-life couples. he established a strong positive correlation between the partners’ ratings of physical attractiveness, just as predicted by the matching hypothesis.

- walster (1966) invited 752 first-year students at the university of minnesota to attend a dance party. they were randomly matched to a partner. however, when students were picking up their tickets, they were secretly judged by a panel in terms of physical attractiveness. at the dance party, and 4 to 6 months later, students were asked whether they found their partner attractive and whether they would like to go on a second date with them.

contrary to the matching hypothesis, students expressed higher appreciation of their partner if the partner was attractive, regardless of their own level of attractiveness.

- sometimes a very physically attractive person forms a relationship with an unattractive person. often a rebalance of traits will occur, whereby the less physically attractive person has some other traits to make up for their lack of physical attractiveness (e.g. being rich, having a high status or great personality). this is called complex matching.

Question 20

filter theory

Answer 20

kerchoff and david (1962) proposed we use filtering to reduce the field of available partners down to a field of desirable partners.

when we meet a potential partner we engage in three levels of filtering: social demography, similarity in attitude, and complementarity of needs. we tend to be attracted to those who pass through a series of filters.

Question 21

examples of each filter

Answer 21

social demography suggests that from the outset, we screen out people based on age, sex, education, social background etc. we are more attracted to people from similar backgrounds to our own.

we choose people who have similar attitudes to our own, because this allows for better cohesion within the relationship (eg. aligned political views, interests etc.)

in the longer term, we choose people who complement our needs and own traits.

Question 22

two strengths of filter theory

Answer 22

+ taylor (2010) found 85% of americans who got married in 2008 had married someone from their own ethnic group, supporting the social demography part of filter theory. individuals seem to choose partners that are similar to them and have a similar background to them.

+ hoyle (1993) found that perceived attitude similarity can predict attraction and liking more strongly than actual attitude similarity. tidwell proved this hypothesis by measuring these two factors in a questionnaire at a speed dating event, whereby participants had to make quick decisions about attraction. results showed that perceived attitude similarity preducted attraction better than actual.

Question 23

three weaknesses of filter theory

Answer 23

• levinger (1970) conducted research using 330 couples and found no evidence that similarity of attitudes or complementarity of needs was important when looking at how permanent the relationship was.
• anderson (2003) found from his longitudinal study of cohabiting partners that they became more similar in terms of their attitudes and emotional responses over time which increased attraction. at the start of the relationship, their attitudes were not so similar - this is called emotional convergence. filter theory is therefore not accurate in saying that attraction is purely based on similar attitudes or similar social demography.
• research using online dating has shown a lack of support for filter theory in that it might not be an accurate way to see how relationships progress and form. the internet has meant that there is a reduction in social demographic variables when we meet someone, and it is now easier to meet people who live far away, or who have a different ethnicity, social class and background. we might meet people who are outside of our demographic limits, and this is very apparent now, compared to the past (30 years ago).

Question 24

social exchange theory

Answer 24

this is an economic theory of romantic relationships and is based on the idea that relationships are ‘like a business’.

Question 25

rewards and costs

Answer 25

we monitor the rewards (fun, attention, esteem etc.) and the costs (time, emotional strain, etc)

we all want the maximum rewards from a relationship (considered the most attractive) and the minimum costs (the least attractive). individuals focus on getting out more than they put in.

mutually beneficial relationships will succeed whereas imbalanced relationships will fail.

Question 26

comparison level/for alternatives

Answer 26

(comparison levels) we compare our present relationship to previous relationships we have had.

we also compare our present partner with people around us who we could potentially have a relationship with (comparison level for alternatives) we look around for a “better deal” if our current relationship is not satisfactory.

Question 27

three strengths of social exchange theory

Answer 27

+ (jacobson, 2000) found that SET has practical applications. integrated couples therapy helps partners to break negative patterns of behaviours, and to decrease negative exchanges, whilst increasing positive exchanges. 66% of couples reported significant improvements in their relationship after receiving this form of therapy.

+ gottman (1992) found that individuals in unsuccessful marriages frequently report a lack of positive behaviour exchanges with their partner, and an excess of negative exchanges. in successful marriages where the relationship is happy, the ratio or positive to negative exchanges is 5:1, but in unsuccessful marriages the ratio is 1:1.

+ different people perceive rewards and costs differently so this theory can account for individual differences in attraction. for example, one person may view being rich as an extreme reward, and value this a lot more than another person who may consider loyalty the biggest reward in a relationship.

Question 28

three weaknesses of social exchange theory

Answer 28

• moghaddam (1998) has criticised the social exchange theory, as it is more applicable to individualistic cultures than collectivist cultures. the perceived costs and rewards of relationships might be very different from one culture to the next. family values and compatibility might be more important rewards in collectivist cultures, whereas in individualist cultures, rewards might be viewed as a partner buying expensive presents.
• critics of this theory disagree with the idea that people spend a great deal of time monitoring their relationship in terms of rewards and costs. they argue that people only monitor rewards and costs once the relationship becomes dissatisfying. for instance, we only look at comparison levels in a relationship when we are already dissatisfied, not when we are happy and the relationship is successful.
• the social exchange theory is rooted in the behaviourist approach whereby the focus of relationship maintenance is about rewards and operant conditioning. however, some relationships have little rewards but many costs, (eg. violent relationships) and yet they still continue. the social exchange theory doesn’t account for relationships like these, where other potential factors like children or a house (investments) may be more important.

Question 29

equity theory

Answer 29

an economic model of relationships based on the idea of fairness for each partne - equity does not always mean equality.

it emphasises the need for each partner to experience a balance between their costs/effort and their benefits/rewards.

Question 30

unequitable relationships

Answer 30

distress will be felt if the relationship becomes unfair.

if people over-benefit in their relationship (receive more rewards than their partner) they might feel guilt or pity, whereas if they under-benefit, they might feel angry or sad.

an imbalance of rewards can be tolerated as long as both parties accept the situation eg. if someone has lost their job, and their partner tolerates and understands this.

Question 31

strengths of equity theory

Answer 31

+ demaris (2007) studied 1500 couples as part of the US national survey of families and households. he found that if women were under-benefitting to a high degree, then there was a high risk of divorce occurring. therefore equity and inequity seem to be very important for women in a relationship.

+ brosnan (2003) found that female monkeys became angry if they were denied a prize (grapes) for playing a game with a researcher. this was especially true if they saw another monkey who had not played the game receive the grapes instead. the monkeys got so angry that they hurled food at the experimenter. it seems that ideas of equity are rooted in our ancient origins.

Question 32

weaknesses of equity theory

Answer 32

• mills and clark (1982) criticised equity theory - they said that it is not possible to assess equity in loving relationships, as many of the rewards and costs are emotional or psychological and cannot be easily measured. if we measure rewards and costs then it could diminish the quality of love in the relationship which could be damaging
• equity theory is more applicable to individualistic cultures than collectivist. in individualistic cultures, people might be more concerned with equal rewards and costs for a relationship to be successful. however, in collectivist cultures, extended family networks and values, cultural expectations, or obligations of roles might be more important when maintaining a relationship.
• buunk (1996) found no association between equity in a relationship and the future quality and maintenance of a relationship. therefore just because a relationship is equal and fair in terms of rewards and costs, it does not mean that the relationship will progress. people have free will to choose whether to continue with a relationship or not and just because a relationship is equitable it does not mean it will necessarily continue and last.

Question 33

rusbult’s investment model

Answer 33

rusbult developed/extended social exchange theory by proposing the investment model.

he saw commitment as a key factor in sustaining a relationship, which depends on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investment.

Question 34

satisfaction, investment, alternatives

Answer 34

satisfaction is determined by available alternatives: better alternatives means less satisfaction.

investment acts as a deterrent to leaving a relationship.

intrinsic investment refers to the resources put into the relationship directly (e.g. emotion, effort etc.) and extrinsic investment refers to resources arising out of the relationship (e.g. children, mutual friends, possessions bought together etc.).

Question 35

two weaknesses of investment theory

Answer 35

• investment model has been criticised because it is very difficult to measure the factors of commitment, satisfaction, investment and quality of alternatives. rusbult responded to this criticism and constructed an investment model scale which could measure each of the key variables in a reliable and valid way. the research that he conducted involved self-reports, which created further problems of social desirability bias.
• lin (1995) criticises the investment model because it does not take into account gender differences that might exist when looking at relationships. he found that females tend to report higher satisfaction, poorer quality of alternatives, greater investment, and stronger commitment in relationships compared to males.

Question 36

three strengths of investment theory

Answer 36

+ van lange (1997) students from taiwan and the netherlands and found evidence that high commitment levels in a relationship were related to high satisfaction, low quality of alternatives and high investment size.

+ investment model can be applied to explain commitment in a variety of different relationships. rusbult administered investment model scale questionnaires to participants in homosexual relationships and found that all factors of the investment model were found to be important when looking at commitment.

+ the investment model is very useful because it can help explain infidelity and abusive relationships.

infidelity might occur if a person’s current relationship has low satisfaction and there is a high quality of alternative. both of these factors would lessen the commitment levels and the present relationship is likely to end.

in abusive relationships, the satisfaction is low and the victim should really leave the relationship. however, they might stay because there is a low quality of alternatives and the investment is too high, e.g. they have children together.

Question 37

ducks phase model of relationship breakdown

Answer 37

relationship breakdown or termination occurs when one or both people in the relationship feel that it is not working, and therefore wish it to end. there are 4 phases: intrapsychic, dyadic, social, grave dressing.

Question 38

intra-psychic processes

Answer 38

this is characterised by the dissatisfied partner privately thinking about their relationship.

they will brood about their partners faults, and that they are under-benefitting from the relationship.

they might feel depressed and withdraw from social interactions with their partner.

Question 39

dyadic processes

Answer 39

the dissatisfied partner privately communicates with their partner about the fact that they are dissatisfied with the relationship.

both partners might think carefully about investments they have in the relationships e.g. house, children, joint possessions etc.

there could be reconciliation if the partner accepts the validity of the dissatisfied partner’s views and promises to change their behaviour or makes agreements to sort out issues. marital therapy might be useful at this point if the process becomes difficult.

if the dissatisfied partner still feels justified, the breakdown process will continue.

Question 40

social processes

Answer 40

if there is a break-up, it is made public to friends and family which means that the problem is harder to deny or ignore.

advice and support are given from people outside the relationship and alliances are made. this can involve criticising former partners eg. ‘never liked him’ or scape-goating, ‘it was all his fault’.

younger adults might experience breakdown very frequently in this period of their life, as they are striving to meet their ideal partner and are testing the market. older couples experience breakdowns less frequently, and some might be resigned to not finding a new partner in the future if the relationship breaks down

Question 41

grave dressing

Answer 41

as the relationship breaks down, there is the need to mourn and justify why the relationship broke down by creating an image of the relationship.

ex-partners begin their post-relationship lives and publicise accounts of how the relationship broke down, making sure their social credit remains high.

stories might be told about betrayal, or how they both struggled to make it work and different versions of the relationship are given to different people.

partners might reinterpret their point of view of their ex-partners eg. ‘they were rebellious or irresponsible’.

Question 42

two strengths of ducks model

Answer 42

+ duck’s phase model was devised in 1982, but improvements have been made to the model as time has passed. duck teamed up with a psychologist called rollie in 2006 and introduced a fifth phase to this model called, the resurrection phase. this is where the person engages in personal growth and gets prepared for new romantic relationships.

+ support for duck’s phase model comes from the social exchange theory. this theory states that if a relationship has high costs and minimal rewards then the relationship is not worth continuing, but instead would breakdown.

Question 43

three weaknesses of ducks model

Answer 43

• akert (1998) found that people were the most important factor in if a relationship should breakdown. they found that those who did not initiate the end of the relationship were the most miserable, lonely, depressed and angry in the weeks after the relationship ended. those who did initiate the breakdown were the least stressed/upset, but did feel guilty.
• the model ignores gender differences that exist when analysing the breakdown of relationships. kassin (1996) found research evidence to suggest that females emphasise unhappiness, lack of emotional support and incompatibility as reasons for relationship breakdown, whereas males state lack of sex and/or fun. females often wish to stay friends with an ex-partner, but males would rather have a clean break and not stay friends.
• the model could be viewed as overly simplistic. it reduces the complex phenomenon of relationship breakdown into four simple stages that must follow a specific order.

in the real world, it would seem unlikely that relationship breakdown can be compartmentalised or reduced into four basic chronological stages. some couples break up, make up, break up, etc

Question 44

self disclosure in virtual relationships

Answer 44

one prominent difference between face-to-face and virtual relationships is that self-disclosure tends to occur much faster in virtual relationships, because of the anonymity associated with it.

people tend to hold off disclosing personal information in real life for fear of ridicule or rejection, unless they are confident that they can trust the person and that information won’t be leaked to mutual friends.

however, there is much less risk of this in virtual relationships.

Question 45

walther’s hyper-personal model

Answer 45

walther (2011) proposed the hyper-personal model of virtual relationships.

he suggested that because self-disclosure in virtual relationships happens faster than in face-to-face ones, they quickly become more intense and feel more intimate and meaningful.

however, they can also end more quickly as it is difficult to sustain the same level of intense self-disclosure for a long time.

Question 46

walther’s model: selective self-presentation

Answer 46

walther also suggested that selective self-presentation is when it is easier to manipulate self-disclosure online than face to face, so virtual relationships may feel more intimate.

participants in online conversations have more time to edit their responses to present themselves in a more positive light. projecting a positive image will make a virtual partner want to disclose more personal information, increasing the intensity of the relationship

Question 47

evaluation of the hyperpersonal model

Answer 47

+ whitty and joinson (2009) conducted research that demonstrates the effect of being online on self-disclosure. they discovered that within online discussion forums, both questions and answers tend to be more direct, probing and intimate than in everyday face-to-face interactions, as the hyperpersonal model would predict.

• research has found that relationships that begin online are more durable than other relationships, rather than ending more quickly as the hyperpersonal model suggests. this is because of more open self-disclosure early on in the relationship, which increases attraction and the likelihood of reciprocal self disclosure (mckenna and bargh, 2000).
• self-disclosure varies depending on the online context. people disclose more on gaming sites than they do on dating websites because the latter is more likely to lead to face-to-face encounters in the future.

Question 48

reduced cue theory

Answer 48

spoull and kiesler (1986) suggested that self-disclosure in virtual relationships might be less open and honest than in face-to-face ones.

in real life, we rely on a lot of subtle cues, such as facial expressions and tone of voice, which are absent in virtual relationships.

Question 49

reduced cue theory: aggression

Answer 49

according to reduced cue theory, reduction in non-verbal communication leads to deindividuation.

this is because it diminishes people’s feelings of individual identity and brings on behaviours that people usually restrain themselves from displaying, such as aggression.

this may make online communications more aggressive, and the consequence of this is less self-disclosure from other people, as they fear verbal aggression.

Question 50

evaluation of reduced cue theory

Answer 50

• non-verbal communication is not absent from virtual relationships, the cues are just different, e.g. emoticons are used as substitutes for facial expression and intonation. the timing of responses is also an important form of non-verbal communication (walther and tidwell 1995).
• reduced cue theory was developed when social media lacked face-to-face interaction, meaning they were much less rich in non-verbal communication than real life interactions. however, advanced technology allows for live interaction, which is much more similar to real life interactions.

Question 51

absence of gating in relationships

Answer 51

in real life, our attraction to other people is greatly influenced by their appearance, mannerisms, and factors such as age and ethnicity.

being online removes factors that normally act as a barrier (gate) to interaction. this creates more opportunities for shy or less attractive people to develop romantic relationships.

the absence of gating online also means that people can establish virtual identities they could never create face-to-face. for example, a shy person can become more outgoing.

Question 52

strength of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 52

+ zahoa et al. (2008) claim that the absence of gating has positive effects on people’s offline relationships. people create an online identity that is appreciated by others, and this enhances their overall self-image and increases the quality of their face-to-face relationships as well.

+ baker and oswald (2010) suggest that the absence of gating in virtual relationships may be particularly useful for shy people. they asked 207 male and female participants to complete a questionnaire, scoring their answers in terms of shyness, internet use, and perception of the quality of their friendships. they found that those people who scored highly on shyness and internet use perceived the quality of their friendships as high. this correlation was absent for people with low shyness scores.

+ there are social benefits to the absence of gating in virtual relationships. for example, it could reduce loneliness by making it easier for some people to access social interactions and seek out company. rosenfeld and thomas (2012) found that out of 4,000 participants, 72% of those with internet access were married or had a romantic partner, compared to only 36% of those without internet access. these findings suggest that a virtual environment helps people to establish and maintain romantic relationships.

Question 53

weaknesses of gating in virtual relationships

Answer 53

• most of the research examining gating was conducted in the late 1990s and early 2000s. as technology is changing rapidly, so is the nature of online relationships. therefore, psychological research in this area risks becoming outdated by the time it is published. this lowers the temporal validity of research into virtual relationships
• people are involved in both online and offline relationships every day, which means that there are fewer differences between virtual relationships and face to face relationships than research seems to suggest. research examining virtual relationships often fails to take into account the effect of these relationships on a person’s offline interactions, and vice versa.

Question 54

parasocial relationships

Answer 54

parasocial relationships refer to one-sided relationships with a celebrity, a prominent person in the community, or a fictional character.

a fan knows everything about the subject of their adoration and feels very close to the person, but there is no chance of reciprocity.

Question 55

levels of parasocial relationships

Answer 55

giles and maltby (2006) identified three levels of parasocial relationships, using the celebrity attitude scale in a large-scale survey. entertainment-social, intense-personal and borderline pathological.

Question 56

entertainment-social

Answer 56

most people engage in parasocial relationships at some point in their lives, but most stay at this first level.

celebrities are seen as a source of entertainment and as a topic for light-hearted gossiping with friends.

this is the least intense level of celebrity worship.

Question 57

intense-personal

Answer 57

this is a deeper level of parasocial relationships. at this level a person has a more intense relationship with a celebrity.

for example, they may see them as a soulmate and have an intense interest in the celebrity’s personal life, such as their dress sense, the food they like and the entertainment in which they take part.

Question 58

borderline-pathological

Answer 58

this is the most intense level of parasocial relationships.

at this level, a person takes celebrity worship to an extreme. they will have obsessive fantasies about the celebrity, spend large sums of money to obtain memorabilia, and may engage in illegal activities such as stalking.

people may also believe that if they were given a chance to meet their favourite celebrity in person, their feelings would be reciprocated.

Question 59

two strengths of parasocial relationships

Answer 59

+ there is research support for the claim that attractiveness increases the likelihood of a parasocial relationship; the attractiveness of a celebrity influenced the development of the three levels of parasocial relationships from members of the public

+ schiappa et al. (2007) found a significant positive correlation between the amount of television participants watched, the degree to which they perceived a TV character as ‘real’ and the level of their parasocial relationship.

Question 60

three weaknesses of parasocial relationships

Answer 60

• educational levels of individuals needs to be taken into account. highly educated individuals may perceive the majority of celebrities as less educated than themselves, therefore, are less likely to engage in parasocial relationships.
• research into the levels of parasocial relationships was conducted via questionnaires. these can be affected by socially desirable and idealised answers, thus, lacking validity
• it was recommend that training should occur in schools to highlight the dangers of parasocial relationships as it often results in an individual having unrealistic goals to be more similar to celebrities. for example, one may develop an eating disorder to obtain the slim body of a media star.

Question 61

absorption-addiction model

Answer 61

the absorption-addiction model (mccutcheon et al. 2002) attempts to explain why people develop parasocial relationships.

it argues that pursuing parasocial relationships makes up for deficits in an individual’s real-life relationships. relationships with celebrities are seen as an attempt to cope with or escape from reality.

parasocial relationships also enable individuals to develop a sense of personal identity and fulfillment.

Question 62

two stages of absorption-addiction model

Answer 62

the two main components of the model are absorption and addiction:

absorption: seeking fulfilment in celebrity worship motivates one to focus all their attention on the celebrity and become pre-occupied in their existence and identify with them.

addiction: the individual sustains their commitment to the relationship by feeling a stronger and closer involvement with the celebrity. this leads to more extreme behaviours and delusional thinking (e.g. stalking a celebrity because there is a belief they share mutual feelings)

people with an addictive nature will escalate through the stages until their parasocial relationship becomes a total preoccupation with a celebrity’s life.

Question 63

three strengths of the absorption-addiction model

Answer 63

+ research supports a link between loneliness and engaging in parasocial relationships. greenwood and long (2009) found evidence that people may develop parasocial relationships as a way of dealing with a recent loss or loneliness.

+ stalkers often have a history of failed sexual relationships at the time of the stalking. stalking in such cases is a reaction to social incompetence, isolation, and loneliness.

+ maltby et al. (2005) measured the relationship between parasocial relationships and body image in teenagers. they found that teenage girls who engaged in parasocial relationships tended to have a poor body image, especially if they particularly admired a celebrity’s physical appearance.

Question 64

two weaknesses of absorption-addiction model

Answer 64

• most research into parasocial relationships is correlational. so, cause and effect cannot be clearly established, lowering the scientific explanatory power. for example, while a significant correlation was found between poor body image and intensive parasocial relationships in teenage girls, this does not mean that intense parasocial relationships causes poor body image. perhaps girls who already have a poor body image tend to engage in a more intensive level of parasocial relationships to enhance their self-esteem.
• the absorption-addiction model is better suited to describing levels of parasocial relationships than explaining how people develop these attitudes. this model attempts to establish universal principles of behaviour and as such misses out on deep insight into the reasons for behaviour. looking into particular instances of parasocial relationships, may be better suited to uncovering the reasons why people develop them.

Question 65

bowlby’s theory

Answer 65

some psychologists use bowlby’s monotropic theory and maternal deprivation theory to explain parasocial relationships.

bowlby noted that failure to form a monotropic attachment before the critical period of two years of age, or developing a poor attachment, had several long-term impacts. people can become affectionless psychopaths, develop a poor internal working model, become delinquents etc. these children will try to find an attachment substitute as adults, and engaging in parasocial relationships allows them to do this.

Question 66

attachment theory

Answer 66

parasocial relationships can be linked to several attachment problems in childhood e.g. protest at loss of attachment figure is similar to separation protest seen in infants.

further, according to the description of the types of attachment described by ainsworth, individuals who formed insecure-resistant relationships with their primary caregiver in early childhood were clingy. this translates to jealous behaviour in adulthood. this makes it harder for an individual to form relationships, and more likely that they form parasocial relationships.

Question 67

insecure-resistant

Answer 67

this is as they are too afraid of the criticism and rejection that are a part of real-life relationships.

intensive parasocial relationships allows people with an insecure-resistant attachment style to engage in a fantasy about the perfect relationships, without the risk of rejection.

Question 68

three strengths of attachment theory

Answer 68

+ cole and leets (1999) found that individuals with an insecure-resistant attachment style were more likely to engage in parasocial relationships with their favourite TV personality, and insecure-avoidant individuals were the least likely to engage in parasocial relationships. this suggests there is a relationship between early attachment in childhood and adult parasocial relationships.

+ research has found that 63% of stalkers experienced loss of a primary caregiver in childhood usually from parental separation. 50% reported childhood emotional, physical or sexual abuse from their primary caregivers. this supports the idea that disturbed attachment in childhood is related to extreme forms of parasocial relationships as an adult.

+ a study found that adults with insecure attachment types had positive attitudes to obsessive behaviours and stalking. pathological attachment types tend to stalk which implies stalking is related to childhood attachment.

Question 69

weaknesses of attachment theory

Answer 69

• research studies into the link between infant attachment type and parasocial relationships rely on participants’ memories about their early lives in order to assess their infant attachment style. such recollections are likely to be flawed because our memories of the past are not always accurate, meaning the studies are not valid.
• parasocial relationships can be positive and not just about fulfilling attachment needs. for example, they allow a safe exploration of emotions.