2.1 approaches

Question 1

emergence of psychology as a science

Answer 1

wilhelm wundt (1832-1920) is known as the father of psychology as he moved the subject on from its philosophical roots to more controlled research.

he opened the first experimental psychology lab in leipzig, germany in 1879.

Question 2

introspection: structuralism

Answer 2

wundt developed the theory of ‘introspection’ as a way of studying internal mental events scientifically.

more specifically, he focused on structuralism, which is documenting and describing human consciousness by breaking it down into its component parts (eg. sensations, perception and emotional reactions).

Question 3

wundt’s case study

Answer 3

introspection was used in highly controlled studies, which enabled wundt to establish general theories about mental processes.

wundt claimed that with sufficient training, conscious mental processes (like perception) could be objectively reported by the individual as they occurred.

for example, wundt would ask people to focus on an everyday object (such as a metronome) and encourage them to look inwards to reflect on the sensations, feelings and images that came to mind. this would be through talking in a ‘stream of consciousness’ without hesitating even if their ideas were not clear/justified.

this information could then be used to gain insight into the mental processes involved.

Question 4

strengths of wundt’s work: scientific

Answer 4

+ wundt was the first to open a laboratory designated for the scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditions. his lab facilitated accurate measurements and replication.

he supported the reductionist point of view, as he believed consciousness could be broken down into measurable units such as perception, senses and experiences. this means that psychology could be seen as a science by breaking down our complex thoughts into simple ones.

Question 5

strengths of wundt’s work: other approaches

Answer 5

+ wundt later recognised that higher mental processes (such as learning, language, emotions, etc.) could not be studied in a strictly controlled manner. this encouraged psychologists to look for alternative methods, and paved the way for things like the cognitive approach, cultural psychology and brain scanning techniques.

Question 6

weaknesses of wundt’s work: other psychologists

Answer 6

• many modern psychologists argue that early behaviourists (e.g. pavlov) made a greater contribution to the development of psychology as a science than wundt did.

they produced reliable findings, which wundt did not, with explanatory principles that were generalisable - much more in keeping with the scientific approach.

Question 7

strengths of wundt’s work, introspection: hunter (2003)

Answer 7

+ hunter (2003) used introspection to measure happiness. they gave a group of adolescents beepers that went off at random times of the day and asked them to write down their thoughts and feelings just as it did.

they found that teenagers were generally more unhappy, but whilst they were doing a challenging task they were happier.

therefore the study proves that introspection is a useful tool to masure peoples thoughts and feelings and can help improve quality of life.

Question 8

weaknesses of wundt’s work, introspection: nisbett & wilson (1977)

Answer 8

• they stated that studies using introspection might not be valid.

many psychologists suggest that several aspects of our minds are outside conscious awareness, meaning they cannot be reported by an individual.

introspection only touches the surface of our thoughts but not why or how we have those thoughts.

Question 9

key assumptions of the behaviourist approach

Answer 9

• concerned with observable behaviours that can be objectively and scientifically measured
• all behaviour is learned from environment, can be reduced to a stimulus-response association
• little difference between learning that takes part in humans/non-humans (for research)

Question 10

classical conditioning

Answer 10

the behaviourist approach suggests that all behaviour is learnt rather than being innate or inherited from parents.

one way in which behaviour can be learnt is via classical conditioning, which is learning through association. a stimulus produces the same response as another stimulus because they’ve been presented consistently at the same time

Question 11

pavlov (1927)

Answer 11

ivan pavlov was credited with discovering the process of classical conditioning.

he was investigating the salivating reflex in dogs when he noticed that dogs would not only salivate when food was placed in their mouths, but also when certain stimuli appeared, such as their dog bowl or the person who usually fed them.

this led pavlov to explore how the dogs had learnt that these stimuli meant food was on the way. he decided to see if he could teach the dogs to salivate when he rang a bell.

Question 12

conditioning stages

Answer 12

before conditioning, food was a UCS that produced the reflex of salivating, which was a UCR. the bell was a NS that produced no conditioned response.

during conditioning, the UCS (food) was repeatedly paired with the NS (bell). eventually, the dog associated the bell with food.

after conditioning, the bell was a CS that produced salivation in the dogs as a CR.

Question 13

operant conditioning

Answer 13

skinner, 1938 suggested operant conditioning was when behaviour is maintained through understanding the consequences of it (positive or negative).

if the consequence of a behaviour is positive then the behaviour is likely to be repeated, but if it is negative then the behaviour is much less likely to be repeated.

Question 14

difference between classical/operant

Answer 14

classical conditioning explains the acquisition of a response (e.g. a phobia) while operant conditioning explains the maintenance of a response.

responses are reinforced in operant conditioning but not in classical conditioning.

Question 15

reinforcement

Answer 15

reinforcement is a consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to happen. there are two types:

positive reinforcement occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant. for example, praising a child for doing their homework means they will keep doing their homework.

negative reinforcement occurs when behaviour is carried out to avoid unpleasant consequences. for example, turning off the alarm clock allows a person to escape from the unpleasant noise.

Question 16

punishment

Answer 16

punishment is a consequence that makes a behaviour less likely to occur. there are two types:

positive punishment is when something unpleasant is added to a person’s life that was not there before. for example, giving a student detention for missing homework.

negative punishment is when something pleasant is removed from a person’s life. for example, confiscating a student’s mobile phone.

Question 17

skinner (1953)

Answer 17

skinner conducted a study on rats in a device called the ‘skinner box’. it was a cage which had speakers, lights, a lever, a door and a floor which could be electrified. one hungry rat at a time would be placed in the box and be allowed to freely run around.

if the rat accidentally pressed the lever it was rewarded by a food pellet which would drop into the box (positive reinforcement). the rat would then continue to press the lever in order to receive a food pellet in the future, as it learned that pressing the lever led to a reward.

the rat could also learn that by pressing the lever they could avoid something unpleasant, (like an electric shock via the electrified floor). this is an example of negative reinforcement.

Question 18

strength of the behaviourist approach: practical application

Answer 18

+ the behaviourist approach has led to several useful treatments. for example systematic desensitisation has been used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders (classical conditioning). token economies are used in prisons and psychiatric institutions (operant conditioning).

however, focusing solely on behaviour neglects the whole person. treatments using conditioning do not get to the root cause of a patient’s problem, and so it is likely that when the therapy has ended the patient will return to their original behaviour

Question 19

strength of behaviourist approach: scientific status

Answer 19

+ the behaviourist approach enhanced the scientific status of psychology by using strict scientific methods, being objective, and producing verifiable findings.

it has developed laws and principles that have enabled psychologists to predict and control behaviour. however, it also raises ethical concerns because the approach could be used to control people against their wishes

Question 20

weakness of behaviourist approach: flawed evidence

Answer 20

• the behaviourist approach has been criticised because it uses non-human animals.

critics claim this tells us little about human behaviour because humans have cognitive factors and emotional states that influence their behaviour.

skinners box also put animals under stressful conditions, which may be considered unethical and affected how they reacted to the situation (causing harm and being unrealistic).

Question 21

weakness of behaviourist approach: reductionist/deterministic

Answer 21

• the behaviourist approach is environmentally reductionist because it focuses on a lower level of explanation than other approaches.

stimulus-response associations lack meaning when attempting to explain complex human behaviours, like attachment.

its also environmentally deterministic - according to behaviourism, human behaviour is entirely determined by the environment. there is no account taken of a person’s free will to decide how to behave.

Question 22

bandura’s social learning theory (1977)

Answer 22

the theory suggests that behaviour is learned through experience, specifically through observation and imitation within a social context

he suggested there were 5 key ideas: modelling, imitation, identification, vicarious reinforcement, mediational processes

Question 23

modelling

Answer 23

for social learning to take place models must carry out the behaviour to be learnt.

a live model could be a parent, teacher or peer, and a symbolic model could be someone in the media.

Question 24

imitation

Answer 24

a lot of the behaviour people acquire is learnt though copying the behaviour that is modelled by others. this is more rapid than using classical or operant conditioning.

Question 25

identification

Answer 25

we are more likely to imitate the behaviour of a model who we admire or who is similar to us in some way (e.g. same age and gender). in order to identify with the model, observers must feel that they are similar enough to the model that if they performed the same behaviour, the consequence would be the same for them as it was for the model.

Question 26

vicarious reinforcement

Answer 26

individuals learn by observing the behaviour of others and the rewards and punishments they receive. people do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly to learn from them. people may learn behaviours, but not perform them because they have also learned that the behaviour is likely to be punished if displayed.

Question 27

mediational processes

Answer 27

cognitive factors occur between the stimulus (observing the behaviour) and the response (imitating the behaviour). 1. attention - the observer must pay attention and notice the behaviour of the model 2. retention - the observer must remember the behaviour of the model 3. motivation - the observer must be willing to imitate the behaviour in light of receiving the same rewards that the model received (vicarious reinforcement) 4. motor reproduction - the observer must be able and motivated to reproduce the behaviour

Question 28

bandura's study (1961): procedure

Answer 28

bandura conducted a study involving 36 male and 36 female children aged 3-7. they were asked to observe a model acting either aggressively or non-aggressively with a bobo doll. some of the children saw a same-sex model and others saw a different sex model.

Question 29

bandura's study (1961): experiment

Answer 29

in the experimental conditions, the model displayed aggressive acts towards the bobo doll such as striking it with a mallet and shouting "POW!". after the children observed these aggressive acts, they were made to feel frustrated by being shown attractive toys and told not to play with them. the children (one by one) were then taken to a room which had some toys including a bobo doll, and were observed for 20 minutes.

Question 30

bandura's study (1961): findings

Answer 30

results found that the children who observed the aggressive model reproduced the same aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll, whereas the children who observed the non-aggressive model, showed no aggression towards the bobo doll. 33% of children who observed and heard verbal aggression repeated what they had seen and heard. 0% of children in the non-aggressive group displayed verbal aggression. boys were more aggressive than girls and imitation of aggression was greatest when the model was the same gender as the observer (identification)

Question 31

strength of social learning theory: comprehensive

Answer 31

+ SLT recognises the importance of both behavioural and cognitive factors (mediational processes) when examining how people learn new behaviours, unlike the behaviourist approach (classical and operant conditioning).

Question 32

weakness of social learning theory: cause and effect

Answer 32

- SLT can be criticised because it does not take into account cause and effect. studies have found that young people who have deviant attitudes seek out peers with similar attitudes, rather than becoming deviant because of their peers.

Question 33

strength of social learning theory: akers (1998)

Answer 33

+ SLT provides evidence for how criminal behaviour is learnt. akers (1998) found that criminals seem to engage in more criminal behaviour when they are exposed to a model that they can highly identify with e.g. same gender/age range. if the model receives a positive outcome for committing crime (rewards like praise, money), then this increases the likelihood that the observer will also commit a crime (via vicarious reinforcement).

Question 34

weakness of social learning theory: biology

Answer 34

- SLT sees behaviour as environmentally determined and so ignores the role of biology in behaviour. bandura (1961) found in his experiment that boys were more aggressive than girls, regardless of the experimental situation they were in. this may be because of the hormone testosterone which means it is biologically determined.

Question 35

key assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 35

suggests that internal mental processes can be studied scientifically like memory, perception and thinking importance of the role of schema and models of explanation like theoretical/computer possible to combine cognitive and biological structures in cognitive neuroscience its appropriate to make inferences about cognitive processes

Question 36

inferences

Answer 36

the cognitive model makes assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed, and this goes beyond immediate research evidence (it is hard to get evidence for assumptions). results must be inferred from behaviour/data which might be mistaken or incorrect (invalid).

Question 37

theoretical models

Answer 37

theoretical models in cognitive psychology (like the MSM of memory) are simplified representations based on current research evidence. models are often pictorial, represented by boxes and arrows that indicate cause and effect in mental processes. models are often incomplete and are frequently updated., eg. the WMM was first proposed in 1974, but a fourth component was added in 2000.

Question 38

computer models

Answer 38

cognitive psychologists have also made use of computer models to explain mental processes. using computers as an analogy, information is input through the senses, coded into memory, and then combined with previously stored information. long-term memory is like a hard disk and RAM is like working memory. RAM/working memory is both cleared and reset when a task has been carried out.

Question 39

schema

Answer 39

schema are mental packets of ideas and information developed through experience, knowledge and understanding. they help organise and interpret information in the brain. a schema for a specific event is based on expectations of how to behave in a different situation (eg. a restaurant or a classroom) or different roles (eg. as a prison guard or a student).

Question 40

schema in context

Answer 40

schema enables us to process lots of information quickly and this prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. however, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information leading to perceptual errors. a negative or faulty schema may harm mental health (eg. the negative triad).

Question 41

cognitive neuroscience

Answer 41

cognitive and biological processes can be integrated, leading to a discipline known as cognitive neuroscience. this is the scientific study of the neurological structures, mechanisms, processes, and chemistry that are responsible for our thinking processes.

Question 42

practical application of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 42

brain imaging techniques such as PET and fMRI scans have been used to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain. this has led to more effective treatments for memory disorders. for example, episodic memories are in the hippocampus, semantic memories are in the temporal lobe, and procedural memories are in the cerebellum.

Question 43

strength of the cognitive approach: labs

Answer 43

+ it emphasises scientific methods such as laboratory experiments when collecting data. this means that high levels of control can be exercised in these settings and cause and effect relationships can be identified. however, laboratory experiments can be criticised for lacking ecological validity - the focus on detail of exactly what can be recalled by participants in controlled environments means an understanding of the everyday use of memory is missing from explanations.

Question 44

strength of the cognitive approach: depression

Answer 44

+ cognitive psychology has also been used to explain the development of negative schema which can aid our understanding of mental illnesses like depression. it has also had a vast influence on the development of therapies like cognitive behavioural therapy, which aims to change negative thoughts into more positive thoughts to help treat depression.

Question 45

weakness of the cognitive approach: inferences

Answer 45

- the cognitive approach can be criticised in that it does not give a full picture of what is going on inside the working mind/brain as inferences are just 'guesses'. psychologists and scientists still need to make inferences about cognitive processing which might be based on limited information available from research/experiments. it is questionable whether psychologists can understand and explain thinking by using inference alone.

Question 46

weakness of the cognitive approach: humans vs computers

Answer 46

- the cognitive approach uses computer models. phrases like storage and retrieval are taken directly from computing. however, importantly, the difference between information processing within a computer programme and the human mind is that computers do not make mistakes. they do not ignore or forget stored information, which humans do.

Question 47

biological approach

Answer 47

the approach suggests that everything psychological begins on a biological basis. to fully understand human behaviour, we must look at biological structures and processes within the body, like genes, neurochemistry, and the nervous system. an understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour, as they all have a physical basis.

Question 48

evolution

Answer 48

according to charles darwin, our behaviour has adapted over time through natural selection. this is where profitable behaviours are selected in mates and therefore reproduced. over time, advantageous behaviours will continue which will continually increase our ability to survive.

Question 49

heredity

Answer 49

refers to the idea that characteristics are 'passed on' from one generation to the next through our genetics. these characteristics can be physical (e.g. height and hair colour) or psychological (e.g. intelligence and predisposition to mental illness).

Question 50

twin studies

Answer 50

to examine the extent to which genes influence behaviour, work is often carried out on pairs of twins. these studies often involve comparing the likelihood of a behaviour/disorder occurring in monozygotic twins (who are 100% genetically similar) to the likelihood of the behaviour/disorder occurring among dizygotic twins (who are 50% genetically similar). if the MZ twins show a higher concordance rate (shared behaviour) then there is argued to be a genetic component.

Question 51

genotype + phenotype

Answer 51

its rare that concordance is ever 100% in MZ twins, so even with genetic influence, some behaviours could be a mix of both genetics and environment: the genotype refers to an individual's genetic make-up. the phenotype refers to the observable traits/characteristics shown by an individual that are due to the combined effect of genes and environment.

Question 52

biological structures: the nervous system

Answer 52

the CNS is made of the brain and spinal cord, which act as a control centre for the individual eg. through the cognitive processing of the brain. the PNS is made up of the somatic and autonomic nervous system. the SNS comprises the muscles attached to the skeleton and is therefore pivotal for movement. the ANS oversees bodily organs and is involved in the fight or flight response.

Question 53

biological structures: the endocrine system

Answer 53

the endocrine system maintains levels of hormones in the blood that are released by glands. the most important gland is the pituitary gland which is located in the brain. this is sometimes called the master gland because it instructs the other glands in the body to secrete hormones when necessary.

Question 54

neurochemistry

Answer 54

neurochemistry involves neurotransmitters and hormones.

Question 55

neurotransmitters

Answer 55

neurons (cells in the nervous system) communicate with each other by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters. biopsychologists argue that neurotransmitter levels can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. low serotonin levels have been linked to depression).

Question 56

hormones

Answer 56

hormones are released as part of the endocrine system through glands. biopsychologists argue that hormone levels in the system can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. high testosterone levels have been linked to aggressive behaviour

Question 57

weakness of the biological approach: legal system

Answer 57

- recent studies suggesting a genetic basis for criminal behaviour has led to concerns about how this information could be used. it could lead to genetic screening of populations to identify genetic susceptibilities and subsequent discrimination against those with a genetic predisposition to crime.

Question 58

weakness of the biological approach: cause and effect

Answer 58

- it is not always easy to determine cause and effect in the biological approach. for example, it is unclear if low serotonin levels cause depression or whether low serotonin levels are a result of depression. therefore we can only assume a relationship and not a cause and effect. so, medication for depression will only treat the symptoms and not tackle the cause suggesting that depression could come back once the patient stops taking the medication.

Question 59

strength of the biological approach: no bias

Answer 59

+ the biological approach uses things like fMRI's, EEG's, family twin, and adoption studies to measure variables. it also uses drugs as its main method of treatment which are focussed on the biological symptoms. this means that almost everything under the biological approach can be measured scientifically and not be open to bias - hence the biological approach has objective and reliable data.

Question 60

strength of the biological approach: practical application

Answer 60

+ if people know they have a genetic predisposition for a mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, this allows them to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or to develop coping skills that would protect them from its potential influence.

Question 61

psychodynamic approach

Answer 61

this suggests that the driving force behind our behaviour is our unconscious mind. our instincts and drives motivate our behaviour, and childhood is pivotal in shaping us.

Question 62

sigmund freud

Answer 62

freud believed that there are three levels to the mind. the conscious mind contains the thoughts, feelings and memories that a person is currently aware of. the preconscious mind contains the thoughts, feelings, and memories that a person could access if they wanted to. freud argued that the largest part of the mind is inaccessible. he referred to this as the unconscious mind.

Question 63

unconscious mind

Answer 63

freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue (freudian slips), creativity and neurotic symptoms. the mind actively prevents traumatic thoughts, feelings, and memories in the mind from reaching the conscious mind because they would cause the person anxiety if they did.

Question 64

psychoanalysis

Answer 64

during psychoanalysis, the therapist tries to access the unconscious mind of their patients using free association, hypnosis and dream interpretation (anna o)

Question 65

the tripartite personality

Answer 65

freud suggested that the mind has only a fixed amount of libido, or psychic energy. the outcome of this is that the personality has a tripartite structure consisting of the id, ego and superego which all attempt to dominate how much libidinal energy they have. experience and conflicts in childhood shape the development of the three parts of personality, affecting how a person behaves.

Question 66

id

Answer 66

the id is in the unconscious mind. it is formed between 0-18 months of age. the id operates on the pleasure principle, meaning that it wants immediate satisfaction regardless of consequences. it focuses on the self and is irrational and emotional. it deals with feelings and needs.

Question 67

ego

Answer 67

the ego is in the conscious mind. it is formed during 18 months-3 years. the ego is rational and obtains a balance between the id and the superego. it acknowledges that the id can be impulsive or selfish, but also that the superego can be too strict. it operates on the reality principle

Question 68

superego

Answer 68

the superego is in the unconscious mind. it is formed between 3-6y, or the phallic stage. it acts as a conscience or moral guide based on parental and societal values. it operates on the morality principle

Question 69

defence mechanisms

Answer 69

defence mechanisms help the ego manage the conflict between the id and the superego. they provide compromise solutions (usually unconscious) to deal with unresolvable conflict. they also provide a strategy to reduce anxiety, which weakens the ego's influence. repression, denial, displacement.

Question 70

repression

Answer 70

repression is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts. however, these repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour. for example, a person who is abused as a child may not remember the abuse but could still have trouble forming adult relationships.

Question 71

denial

Answer 71

denial is the refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic situation. for example, an alcoholic may deny that they have a drinking problem.

Question 72

displacement

Answer 72

displacement occurs when the focus of a strong emotion (e.g. anger) is expressed on an alternative person or object. eg. a student who has been given a detention by their teacher might kick their locker.

Question 73

psychosexual stages

Answer 73

freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages. these are referred to as psychosexual stages to emphasise that the most important driving force in development is the need to express sexual energy (libido). at each stage this energy is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body.

Question 74

fixation

Answer 74

freud believed that parents played an important role in a child's progression through the psychosexual stages. if the child as allowed to experience too much or too little gratification at any of the stages, a process called fixation could occur in which the child's later adult personality could show permanent signs reflecting the stage at which fixation occurred.

Question 75

oral (0-2y)

Answer 75

this stage starts from birth when the mouth is the primary focus of libidinal energy (expressed through sucking, tasting and biting) the overindulged oral receptive character is optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration for others around them. a child who is frustrated at this stage and thus becomes fixated may develop an adult personality that is characterised by pessimism, envy, and suspicion (the 'oral aggressive' character). they may end up with an addiction in the form of smoking or drinking.

Question 76

anal (2-3y)

Answer 76

the child's focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining faeces. this represents a conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of bodily wastes, and the ego, which represents external pressures to control bodily functions. fixation in this stage occurs if the parents are too lenient in this conflict - the 'anal-expulsive' character is disorganised, thoughtless, and defiant. conversely, a child may opt to retain faeces, thereby spiting his parents, and may then develop into an 'anal retentive' character who is neat, a perfectionist, stingy and obstinate.

Question 77

phallic (3-6y)

Answer 77

the focus of pleasure in this stage is the genital area. a child will experience either the oedipus (boys) or electra (girls) complex. eventually, both boys and girls will overcome these conflicts and identify with the same sex parent however, if a child becomes fixated in this stage of development, then they could become narcissistic or quite reckless in their behaviours.

Question 78

latent stage (6-puberty)

Answer 78

the latency period is not a psychosexual stage of development but a period in which the sexual drive lies dormant. it is also in this stage where boys and girls will be quite distinct from each other. girls will become more ‘feminine’ and boys more ‘masculine’. freud saw latency as a period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and erogenous impulses.

Question 79

genital stage (puberty onwards)

Answer 79

the genital stage begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. interest now turns to heterosexual relationships. the less energy the child has still invested in unresolved conflicts in the earlier stages, the greater their capacity will be to develop normal relationships with the opposite sex. fixation in this stage may lead to a person struggling to form heterosexual relationships.

Question 80

oedipus complex (boys)

Answer 80

during the phallic stage, boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a hatred for their rival in love – their father. fearing that their father will castrate them (castration anxiety), boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father. in doing so, they internalise his gender role and moral values (his superego).

Question 81

electra complex (girls)

Answer 81

during the phallic stage, girls experience penis envy and so desire their father. they also believe they have been castrated and blame their mother for this. over time, girls give up their desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby. in turn, they identify with their mother and internalise her gender role and moral values (her superego).

Question 82

strength of the psychodynamic approach: case studies

Answer 82

+ the case study of little hans supports the oedipus complex proposed by freud. in this, freud explains how little hans obtained his phobia of horses and how it could be related to the phallic stage of psychosexual development. he suggested that that hans' fear linked to the oedipus complex, as the horses he was scared of (black harnesses) unconsciously represented his fear of his father (moustache).

Question 83

strength of the psychodynamic approach: practical application

Answer 83

+ it has led to the development of psychoanalysis – a therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. it is useful because therapists try to understand the underlying causes of these disorders using free association, dream analysis and hypnosis. this laid the foundation for psychotherapy in modern psychiatry, which has been proven to be very successful in treating disorders.

Question 84

weakness of the psychodynamic approach: lack of falsifiability

Answer 84

- you cannot prove freud's theories wrong, making it unfalsifiable and unscientific. many parts of freud's theory are abstract concepts like the id, ego and superego, or defence mechanisms. these cannot be measured scientifically as they are unconscious. also, the oedipus complex could only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts/experiences (e.g. through dream analysis) where subjective interpretation is open to investigator bias. the psychodynamic approach lacks scientific rigour.

Question 85

weakness of the psychodynamic approach: sexist

Answer 85

- the psychodynamic approach, especially freud’s theory, was criticised as being sexist. he places a lot of emphasis on the ‘oedipal complex’ which suggests that girls do not experience the same feelings of guilt as boys. eg. little hans (a boy) is only relevant to how boys feel about their mothers, and ignores girls. this therefore suggests that boys are morally superior to girls because they experience more guilt during the phallic stage of development, which can have several negative effects within society.

Question 86

weakness of the psychodynamic approach: case studies

Answer 86

- the concepts of the psychodynamic approach are based on a very small sample size, due to the reliance on the case study method. this leads to problems with generalisability because case studies often had just one person.

Question 87

humanistic approach

Answer 87

suggests that psychology should study the whole person given that everyone is unique and people have free will to make their own decisions. the scientific method is too objective because they don't acknowledge the individual's perspective.

Question 88

maslows hierarchy of needs

Answer 88

a person's most basic physiological needs like food, water, warmth etc. are represented at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by safety needs. this is followed by psychological needs like love and belongingness needs from friends, family, partner and esteem needs which is feeling good about oneself/competent. people are motivated to achieve progression through the levels, each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need. maslow believed that the more basic the need the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore.

Question 89

self actualisation

Answer 89

self-actualisation occurs is a more advanced need, at the top of the pyramid. this is when a person reaches their full potential and is the best version of themselves. maslow found that most of those who attained self-actualisation shared certain characteristics: creative, accepting of other people, and had an accurate perception of the world around them. maslow believed that such individuals experienced self-actualisation in the form of peak experiences. these are moments of extreme inspiration and ecstasy during which they felt able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibition

Question 90

focus on the self: rogers (1951)

Answer 90

rogers (1951) claimed that people have two basic needs: positive regard from other people and feelings of self-worth (valuing ourselves). feelings of self-worth develop in childhood as a result of the child's interactions with parents. further interactions with significant others in adulthood (friends, spouses etc.) also have an influence.

Question 91

congruence

Answer 91

when there is a similarity between a persons’ perceived self (how they view themselves) and their ideal self (how they would like to be) a state of congruence exists. the closer the perceived self is to the ideal self, the higher our feelings of self-worth. it is rare for a complete state of congruence to exist: most people experience some degree of incongruence. but most people do see themselves in ways that are largely consistent with their ideal self.

Question 92

positive regard

Answer 92

unconditional positive regard is when a person is accepted for who they are by others unconditionally, however, positive regard can also be conditional. when people experience conditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth, which are conditions that they believe have to be met if they are to be accepted by others. an individual will only experience a sense of self-acceptance if they meet the expectations that others have set as conditions of acceptance.

Question 93

counselling psychology

Answer 93

rogers (1959) claimed that an individual’s psychological problems were a direct result of the conditional positive regard they receive from other people. he believed that, with counselling, people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways and move towards being a more functioning person. instead of acting in a directive way, humanistic psychologists, regard themselves as guides to help people understand themselves and find ways to enable their potential for self-actualisation.

Question 94

therapists

Answer 94

therapists provide unconditional positive regard, expressing their acceptance and understanding. they are therefore able to provide a supportive environment to help dissolve the client’s conditions of worth. this results in the client moving towards being more true to themselves (being able to behave in a way that is true to the person they are, rather than who someone else wants them to be).

Question 95

strength of humanistic approach: free will

Answer 95

+ humanists believe in free will. the approach allows for personal development and change during our lives, and acknowledges that we can change as a consequence of our environment. this is the opposite to the psychodynamic approach with states that childhood experiences lead to our destiny.

Question 96

strength of humanistic approach: harter et al (1996)

Answer 96

+ research with adolescents has shown evidence consistent with rogers’ view. they explored the idea that those who experience conditional positive regard are likely to display behaviour that meets others' expectations even if they clash with their values (as opposed to unconditional). harter et al (1996) discovered that teenagers who felt that they had to fulfill certain conditions to gain their parents approval frequently ended up not liking themselves. they found that adolescents who pretended to be a persona that their parents would love (due to conditional positive regard) were also more likely to develop depression, and a tendency to lose touch with themselves.

Question 97

weakness of the humanistic approach: unscientific

Answer 97

- humanistic psychology does include many vague ideas that are abstract and difficult to test. for example, ‘self-actualisation’ and ‘congruence’ may be useful therapeutic tools but would prove problematic to assess under experimental conditions or operationalise. humanistic psychology is short of empirical (research) evidence to support most of its claims.

Question 98

weakness of the humanistic approach: culture bias

Answer 98

- many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy, and personal growth, would be much more associated with individualistic cultures in the west (like the UK, USA). collectivist cultures like india which emphasise the needs of the group, community and interdependence, may not easily identify with the ideals of humanistic psychology e.g. self-actualisation. therefore this approach is culturally biased.

Question 99

weakness of the humanistic approach: idealistic

Answer 99

- some critics argue that the humanistic approach presents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature. people are not as inherently good or growth orientated as this approach suggests, in fact this approach ignores peoples’ capacity for pessimism and self-destruction

Question 100

weakness of the humanistic approach: limited application

Answer 100

unlike some of the other approaches, humanistic psychology has relatively little real-world application. rogerian counselling techniques have been employed successfully, and maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation in the workplace. however, the approach has had limited impact within the discipline of psychology as a whole. this may be because humanistic psychology lacks empirical evidence or that the approach is not a comprehensive theory, but as a loose set of rather abstract concepts