304 - dental & regional anatomy, oral health assessments & treatment planning. Flashcards
What is a muscle cell?
an electrical impulse that generates forces and produces motion.
attached to bone and allows movement e.g food through digestive tract.
What is a nerve cell?
initiate and carry electrical impulses to distant areas in body e.g. gland releasing chemicals
What is an epithelial cell?
cover the whole body surface as skin and surround organs to protect and prevent uncontrolled movement of harmful microorganisms
What are connective tissue cells?
present in body in different forms e.g. cartilage in ligaments, dentine in teeth.
How do cells receive fuel to produce energy to work?
Fuel is provided through the food we eat.
Why do body cells require oxygen?
to burn food eaten to produce energy to function
Role of oxygen in body?
Brought in through respiratory system and transported around body in circulatory system.
What is the cardiovascular system composed of?
heart, blood vessels, blood
what is the function of the cardiovascular system?
- transport blood to lungs for oxygenation
- transport oxygenated blood to body
- transport deoxygenated blood back to lungs
what is the respiratory system composed of?
nose, throat, larynx, trachea, lungs
what is the function of the respiratory system?
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between body and atmosphere
what is the digestive system composed of?
mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, intestines, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
what is the function of the digestive system?
- digest, process and absorb nutrients from food
- excrete waste products
what is the nervous system composed of?
brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
what is the function of the nervous system?
- give consciousness
- regulate and co-ordinate body activities
what is the musculoskeletal composed of?
bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, skeletal muscle
what is the function of the musculoskeletal?
- supports and protect internal organs
- allow movement
what is the immune system composed of?
white blood cells, lymph, spleen, bone marrow, thymus
what is the function of the immune system?
- defend against infection
- produce red and white blood cells
what is the endocrine composed of?
all glands and secrete hormones
what is the function of the endocrine?
regulate and co-ordinate body functions
what is the urinary composed of?
kidneys, ureter, bladder, urethra
what is the function of the urinary?
- regulate blood plasma
- excrete waste products
what is the reproductive system composed of?
male/female sex organs
what is the function of the reproductive system?
reproduction
what is integumentary composed of?
skin
what is the function of the integumentary?
- protect against injury and dehydration
- maintains body temperature
4 relevant body systems in dentistry?
circulatory system
respiratory system
digestive system
nervous system
characteristic of oxygenated blood?
- high concentration of oxygen
- bright cherry red colour
characteristic of deoxygenated blood?
- low concentration of oxygen
- dark reddish, purple colour
what are the four heart chambers?
upper two = atria
lower two = ventricles
what is the atria and ventricle separated by?
one way valves, allow blood flow in direction of atria to ventricle only
What does the right side of the heart do?
transport only deoxygenated blood from body to lungs
what does the left side of the heart do?
transport only oxygenated blood from lungs to rest of the body
how is deoxygenated blood collected from whole body?
through veins and transported to right atrium via inferior and superior venae cavae
where is blood pumped as the heart beats?
through one way valve between the tricuspid valve and into right ventricle.
it then beats out of right ventricle into pulmonary artery into lungs for reoxygenation
what happens with oxygenated blood when it returns to left atrium through pulmonary veins?
pumped through one way valve (mitral valve) into left ventricle
next heartbeat pushes blood out of heart into aorta then back to body to reoxygenate cells
where does the heartbeat begin?
top surface of right atrium in group of specialised muscles cells = sinoatrial node or pacemaker
how is the heart rate regulated to allow exercise and rest?
the cells receive electrical stimulation from two nerves in brain:
- one set speeds up rate of heartbeat
- other set slows down rate of heartbeat
what happens after every heartbeat?
blood is prevented from flowing backwards by one way valves
what are arteries?
blood vessels taking oxygenated blood around body
what is the largest artery?
aorta
what do aortas gradually decrease to?
arterioles then capillaries
what are capillaries?
one cell thick
allowing oxygen it carries to be released into surrounding tissue
to burn nutrients and create energy
what happens as oxygen passes out of capillaries?
waste product of energy production (carbon dioxide) passes from surrounding tissue into capillaries
what is the gas exchange in the circulatory system called?
internal respiration
how does deoxygenated blood reach the venae cavae?
travels through capillaries into small veins called venules
then into larger veins to reach venae cavae
where is deoxygenated blood from the upper body transported to?
the superior vena cave
where is deoxygenated blood from the lower body transported to?
the inferior vena cava
what artery carries deoxygenated blood?
pulmonary artery
what happens in the external respiration gas exchange?
carbon dioxide released into lungs and breathed out
oxygen breathed in travels from lungs to blood capillaries
blood = reoxygenated
why are the arteries elastic?
to expand as powerful as surge of blood passing along them
what happens after the initial wave of pumped blood has passed?
artery walls relax back to normal size until next heartbeat
how is blood pressure measured and recorded?
by the difference in pressure within arteries
when does the maximum pressure of blood in arteries occur?
during peak of ventricular contraction (systole)
when does the minimum pressure of blood in arteries occur?
the end of ventricular contraction (diastole)
how is blood pressure recorded?
systolic pressure over diastolic pressure
in a healthy adult at rest what should blood pressure record as?
120/80 (mmHg)
what is used to measure blood pressure?
sphygmomanometer and stethoscope
automated device
what can be felt when the artery passes over bone?
blood surge is felt as pulse at various sites around body
where is the carotid pulse?
either side of neck where carotid arteries lie across neck vertebrae above muscles
where is the brachial pulse?
inner surface of elbow where brachial arteries lie over elbow joints
where is the radial pulse?
inner surface of wrists as radial arteries lie over the radius bone of lower arms
where is the femoral pulse?
top of inner thighs as femoral arteries lie over the femoral bone of upper legs
why do veins only require little tissue?
pressure of blood surge is reduced by the time it reaches venous side of circulatory system
why do larger veins contain one way valves?
to prevent blood from flowing backwards between heart beats
what happens when valves begin to lose function as we age?
vein becomes varicosed (abnormally swollen)
what are varicose veins?
blood accumulated in the veins, usually in lower legs
how much blood is the circulatory system usually filled with?
5 litres in adult
what temperature is the blood kept at?
37c by process of homeostasis
what does blood consist of?
plasma - several cell types that float in straw coloured fluid
what are erythrocytes?
red blood cells
what are leucocytes?
white blood cells
what are platelets?
thrombocytes - fragments of larger blood cells called megakaryocytes
why do erythrocytes have no nucleus?
to provide maximum space available for them to do main task which is to transport oxygen around body
how do erythrocytes achieve their main task?
by attaching oxygen to haemoglobin
why is oxygen vital to cells?
to produce energy and carry out their functions
what gives blood its red colour?
presence of red iron-based protein haemoglobin
what colour is oxygenated blood?
bright cherry red
what colour is deoxygenated blood?
dark reddish-purple colour
where are leucocytes made?
lymph nodes and bone marrow
do leucocytes circulate through the body all the time?
yes
what do leucocytes do when the body is under attack from micro-organisms?
pass through circulatory system to area of disease
squeeze through capillary wall to body tissues under attack
surround and destroy microorganism so disease is stopped spreading
what do leucocytes help with in severe infections?
help destroy invaders by presence of antibodies released from immune system
do platelets contain a nucleus?
no
what are platelets concerned with?
coagulation of blood at site of injury to prevent excessive blood loss
how do platelets prevent excessive blood loss?
physically plug damaged blood vessels by acting as meshwork to form blood clot and release chemicals
what is plasma?
fluid part of blood that carries blood cells within it
what does plasma consist of?
90% water with powerful chemicals called plasma proteins and the 3 blood cells
how does plasma acts as the transport system?
by carrying numerous cells and chemicals from one area to another as needed
function of plasma
transport erythrocytes to allow oxygenation of blood tissue
transport of waste carbon dioxide to lungs
how may disorders affecting the circulatory system have an impact on dental treatment?
may affect sustainability of local anaesthetic
why must heart conditions be disclosed in medical history?
condition may prevent heart coping in stressful situations e.g. when undergoing dental treatment
why must blood disorder be disclosed in medical history?
prevent adequate clotting of blood and pt may have uncontrolled hemorrhage
why are medications disclosed in medical history?
certain medications may react with local anaesthetic especially those containing adrenaline
what medications may interact with adrenaline?
thyroxine
some antidepressants
HRT - hormone replacement therapy
what is heart failure?
when the pumping efficiency of the heart is inadequate resulting in inability to pump enough blood with each beat for the body to function normally
why does heart failure occur?
due to a problem with heart itself
due to medical condition that increases workload of heart as it pumps blood
what is a myocardial infarction?
‘heart attack’ where there is sudden reduction in supply of oxygenated blood to heart through coronary artery due to blockage by a clot
what is myocarditis?
inflammation of heart muscle due to a viral infection
what is a valvular disease?
affects any of the four heart valves so that the filling or emptying of heart is inadequate and has to work harder
what is angina?
condition of myocardial ischaemia (reduced blood flow) caused by narrowing and partial blockage of the coronary arteries which supply the heart itself
what is myocardial ischaemia?
reduced blood flow
what is renal failure?
kidney failure which results in sufferer being unable to remove sufficient waste fluids from body.
Fluid retention causes increased blood/fluid volume which requires more work from heart to pump around body
what is hypertension?
raised blood pressure at rest meaning the heart has to pump more strongly to move blood from left ventricle into aorta.
what is a stroke?
full obstruction of an artery supplying the brain
what is pulmonary embolism?
full obstruction of one of the pulmonary arteries supplying the lungs
what is a cardiac arrest?
sudden failure of the heart to beat at all or to beat rapidly but ineffectively without pumping blood
what does asystole mean?
failure of heart to beat
what does fibrillation mean?
rapid beating but without pumping of blood
what is a rheumatic fever?
occurs when a pt has suffered previous illness that has caused damage to the heart valves
what is anaemia?
disorder that affects the oxygen carrying capacity of erythrocytes - poor tissue oxygenation
what is a haemorrhage?
excessive bleeding
who is more likely to experience a haemorrhage?
patients with clotting disorders
what are the functions of the respiratory system?
- inhalation of air to provide oxygen for absorption into circulatory system.
- expiration of respiratory waste product, carbon dioxide form body.
- filtering and warming of inspired air to remove foreign body particles
where does the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occur?
the alveoli
what is the alveoli?
microscopic air filled sacs
one cell thick
surrounded by capillaries from two pulmonary arteries
what are the protective mechanisms of the respiratory system?
nose
larynx
trachea
bronchi
what do the cells in the respiratory tract produce?
sticky coating - mucus
what is cilia?
microscopic hairs on cells that trap dust and dirt
what is bronchial asthma?
hypersensitivity response to inhaled particles that compromises patients breathing by constricting airways
what medications can exacerbate asthma?
NSAIDS such as ibuprofen and aspirin
what is bronchitis?
inflammation of bronchi following respiratory infection
what is emphysema?
characterised by abnormal widening and enlargement of alveoli, preventing adequate gaseous transfer
what is bronchitis and emphysema occurring together called?
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
inhaled foreign bodies?
tend to fall into right bronchus and patient may begin to choke
what is the digestive system composed of?
mouth & salivary glands
pharynx
oesophagus
stomach
small intestines
large intestines
pancreas
liver
gallbladder
what occurs in the pharynx?
swallowing
what occurs in the oesophagus?
transport food from mouth to stomach
what occurs in the stomach?
majority of ingested foods are stored while being broken down for absorption
what occurs in the small intestines?
final stages of digestion and absorption of various nutrients
what occurs in the large intestines?
digestive waste products are stored before elimination by defecation and water and salts are reabsorbed into body
what do various digestive organs act to?
- break down and absorb nutrients within food
- transfer the nutrients to circulatory system for transport to all areas of body
why do all living organisms need food for?
- for growth
- for replacement of worn and damaged cells
- as a source of energy to enable normal bodily functions to occur for organism to live and survive
where are proteins found?
in meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese
where are carbohydrates found?
in sugars from fruit & veg and in starch from bread, cereals and potatoes
where are fats found?
in meat, milk, cheese and butter from animals
necessary for energy production
what vitamins are required for health?
A, B, C and D
what minerals are needed in the body?
calcium, phosphates, fluoride, sodium and iron
how much of the body is made up of water?
more than 80%
