(3) Biological Psychology Flashcards
Genes
the basic units of heredity; genes are responsible for guiding the process of creating the protein that make up our physical structures and regulate development and physiological processes throughout the lifespan
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
a molecule formed in double-helix shape that contains four nucleotides: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine
Genotype
the genetic makeup of an organism – the unique set of genes that comprises that individual’s genetic code
Phenotype
the physical traits and behavioural characteristics that show genetic variation, such as eye colour, the shape and size of facial features, intelligence, and even personality
Chromosomes
structures in the cellular nucleus that are lined with all of the genes and individual inherits
Homozygous
if two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes are the same
Heterozygous
if two corresponding genes at a given location on a pair of chromosomes differ
Behavioural genomics
the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behaviour
Human Genome Project
a massive effort to identify the components of the entire human genome
Behavioural Genetics
the study of how genes and the environment influence behaviour
Monozygotic Twins
come form a single ovum (egg), which makes them genetically identical (almost 100% genetic similarity)
Dizygotic Twins
come from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm cells that share the same womb; these twins have approximately 50% of their genes in common
Longitudinal Studies
studies that follow the same individuals for many years, often decades
Heritability
a statistic, expressed as a number between zero and one, the represents the degree to which genetic differences among individuals contribute to individual differences in a behaviour or trait found in a population
Gene Expression
occurs when then information in our genes is used to produce proteins (or other gene products, such as ribosomal RNA)
Epigenetics
changes in gene expression that occur as a result of experience and that do not alter the genetic code
CRISPR-Cas9
a technique that allows genetic material to be removed, added, or altered in specific locations of the genome
Natural Selection
the process by which favourable traits become increasingly common in a population of interbreeding individuals, while traits that are unfavourable become less common
Evolution
the change in the frequency of genes occurring in an interbreeding population over generations
Evolutionary psychology
attempts to explain human behaviours based on the beneficial function(s) they may have served in our species’ evolutionary history
Hunter-gatherer Theory
which explicitly links performance on specific tasks to the different roles performed by males and females over the course of our evolutionary history
Neurons
one of the major types of cells found in the nervous system, which are responsible for sending and receiving messages throughout the body
Cell Body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus that houses the cell’s genetic material (also know as soma)
Dendrites
small branches radiating from the cell body that receive messages from other cells and transmit those messages toward the rest of the cell
Axon
transports information in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of the neuron
Axon Terminals
bulb-like extensions filled with vesicles
Neurotransmitters
the chemicals that function as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other
Glial Cells
specialized cells of the nervous system involved in mounting immune responses in the brain, removing waste, and synchronizing the activity of neurons that constitute the nervous system
Myelin
a fatty sheath that insulates axons from one another, resulting in increased speed and efficiency of neural communication
Multiple Sclerosis
is a disease in which the immune system does not recognize myelin and attacks it – a process that can devastate the structural and functional integrity of the nervous system
Resting potential
relatively stable state during which the cell is not transmitting messages
Ion Channels
small pores on the neuron’s cell membrane
Action Potential
a wave of electrical activity that originates at the beginning of the axon near the cell body and rapidly travels down its length
Refractory Period
Brief period in which a neuron cannot fire
Synapse
an area consisting of a neuron’s axon terminals and a different neuron’s dendrites; these structures are separated by a microscopic space into which neurotransmitters can be released
Presynaptic Cell
the neuron that releases its neurotransmitters into the synapse
Postsynaptic Cell
the neuron that receives neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell
All-or-none Principle
Individual nerve cells fire at the same strength every time an action potential occurs
Synaptic Cleft
the minute space between the axon terminal (terminal button) and the dendrite
Reuptake
a process whereby neurotransmitter molecules that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron
Glutamate
is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brains of vertebrates
GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid):
the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter of the nervous system, meaning that it prevents neurons from generating action potentials
Acetylcholine
one of the most widespread neurotransmitters within the body, found at the junctions between nerve cells and skeletal muscles; it is very important for voluntary movement
Dopamine
a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in such varied functions as mood, control of voluntary movement, and processing of rewarding experiences
Norepinephrine
a monoamine synthesized from dopamine molecules that is involved in regulating stress responses, including increasing arousal, attention, and heart rate
Epinephrine
hormone and neurotransmitter created in the adrenal gland on the kidneys (also known as adrenaline)
Serotonin
a monoamine involved in regulating mood, sleep, aggression, and appetite
Agonists
drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter’s action
Antagonists
inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of a neurotransmitter
Hormones
are chemicals secreted by the glands of the endocrine system
Hypothalamus
a brain structure that regulates basic biological needs and motivational systems
Pituitary Gland
the master gland of the endocrine system that produces hormone and sends commands about hormone production to the other glands of the endocrine system
Adrenal Glands
a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to the kidneys that release stress hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine
Endorphins
hormones produced by the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus that function to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure
Testosterone
a hormone that serves multiple functions, including driving physical and sexual development over the long term
Central Nervous System (CNS)
consists of the brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
a division of the nervous system that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body and is divided into two subcomponents: the somatic system and the autonomic system
Cerebral Hemispheres
nearly symmetrical halves of the brain that contain the same structures
Brainstem
the “stem” or bottom of the brain and consists of two structures: the medulla and the pons
Reticular Formation
extends form the medulla upwards to the midbrain
Cerebellum
the lobe-like structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the monitoring of movement and maintaining balance, attention, and emotional responses
Midbrain
Resides just above the hindbrain, primarily functions as a relay station between sensory and motor areas
Parkinson’s disease
a condition marked by major impairments in voluntary movement
Forebrain
the most visibly obvious region of the brain, consists of the midbrain neural structures, including the outer folds and grooves; which the forebrain structures are critical for complex processes such as emotion, memory, thinking, and reasoning
Basal Ganglia
a group of three structures that are involved in facilitating planned movements, skill learning, and integrating sensory and movement information with the brain’s reward system
Huntington’s Disease
a condition involving uncontrollable movements of the body, head, and face
Tourette’s Syndrome
a condition marked by erratic and repetitive facial and muscle movements (tics), heavy eye blinking, and frequent noise making such as grunting, snorting or sniffing
Limbic System
an integrated network involved in emotion and memory
Amygdala
a group of nuclei in the medal portion (near the middle) of the temporal lobes in each hemisphere of the brain that facilitates memory formation for emotional events, mediates fear responses, and appears to play a role in recognizing and interpreting emotional stimuli, including facial expressions
Thalamus
a set of nuclei involved in relaying sensory information to different regions of the brain
Cerebral Cortex
the convoluted, wrinkled outer layer of the brain that is involved in multiple higher functions such as thought, language, and personality
Occipital Lobes
located at the rear of the brain and are where visual information is processed
Parietal Lobes
involved in our experiences of touch as well our bodily awareness
Neglect
a situation in which the patient does not attend to anything that appears in the left half of their visual field
Temporal Lobes
located at the sides of the brain near the ears and are involved in hearing, language, and some higher-level aspects of vision such as object and face recognition
Cortical Deafness
problems with hearing despite the fact that the patient’s ears work perfectly
Frontal Lobes
are important in numerous higher cognitive functions, such as planning, regulating impulses and emotions, language production, and voluntary movement
Corpus Callosum
a collection of neural fibres connection the two cerebral hemispheres
Hemispheric Specialization
the two sides of the cortex often perform very different functions
Spilt-brain Patients
individuals with epilepsy who had their corpus callosum severed in order to treat their seizures
Neuroplasticity
the capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual experience
Trophic Factors
Chemicals that stimulate the growth of new dendrites and axons
Trophic Factors
Chemicals that stimulate the growth of new dendrites and axons
Lesioning
a technique in which researchers intentionally damage an area in the brain (a lesion is abnormal or damage to a single brain tissue)
Sham Group
a set of animals that go through all of the surgical procedures aside from the lesion itself in order to control for the effects of stress, anesthesia, and the annoyance of stitches
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS):
a procedure in which an electromagnetic pulse is delivered to a targeted region of the brain
Structural Neuroimaging
a type of brain scanning that produces images of the different structures of the brain
Computerized Tomography
a structural neuroimaging technique in which X-rays are sent through the brain by a tube that rotates around the head
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
a structural imaging technique in which clear images of the brain are created based on how different neural regions absorb and release energy while in a magnetic field
Diffusion Tensor Imaging
a form of structural neuroimaging allowing researchers or medical personnel to measure white-matter pathways in the brain
Functional Neuroimaging
a type of brain scanning that provides information about which areas of the brain are active when a person performs a particular behaviour
Electroencephalogram
measures patterns of brain activity with the use of multiple electrodes attached to the scalp
Magnetoencephalography
a neuroimaging technique that measures tiny magnetic fields created by the electrical activity of brain nerve cells
Positron Emission Tomography
a scan which a low level of a radioactive isotope is injected into the blood; which the brain movements from the particular task are measured
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
detecting the influx of oxygen-rich blood into neural areas that were just active
