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Year 1 Biology > 2C - Cells and the Immune System > Flashcards

2C - Cells and the Immune System Flashcards

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1
Q

What are antigens?

A

Proteins on the surface of cells that can generate an immune response and are specific to that type of cell.

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2
Q

What are foreign antigens?

A

Antigens not normally found in the body.

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3
Q

Cells from our body are called …

A

Self cells

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4
Q

Cells from other organisms are called …

A

Non-self cells

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5
Q

A pathogen is…

A

an organism that causes disease.

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6
Q

Three examples of pathogens

A

Bacteria
Fungi
Viruses

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7
Q

Abnormal body cells

A

Cancerous of pathogen infected cells that have abnormal antigen to trigger an immune response.

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8
Q

What is a phagocyte?

A

A type of white blood cell which carries out phagocytosis. Found in the blood and tissues.

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9
Q

What are lymphocytes

A

White blood cells

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10
Q

Stages of phagocytosis

A

1) Phagocyte recognises foreign antigens on a pathogen
2) Cytoplasm of the phagocyte moves around the pathogen
3) A phagocytic vacuole is formed around the pathogen and lysosomes containing digestive enzymes fuse with the vacuole.
4) Enzymes are released from the lysosomes into the vacuole which break down the pathogen
5) Phagocyte presents the antigens of the pathogen on its surface to generate an immune response. It becomes an antigen presenting cell.

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11
Q

What do T Helper cells do?

A

Bind to complementary antigens and release chemical signals that stimulate T-Killer cells, B-cells and phagocytes

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12
Q

What do T-Killer (cytotoxic) cells do?

A

Bind to foreign antigens and release digestive enzymes into the pathogen which destroys it.

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13
Q

What are B-lymphocytes?

A

A type of white blood cell that when stimulated by T-Helper cells will mature into plasma cells which produce antibodies which are specific to the pathogen it is bound to. This is called clonal selection.

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14
Q

Monoclonal antibodies are…

A

Antibodies produce from a single group of genetically identical cells

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15
Q

Agglutination

A

When pathogens become clumped together. This is because each antibody has 2 binding sites.

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16
Q

Cellular Responses

A

T-Cells

Phagocytes

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17
Q

Humoral Responses

A

B-cells
Clonal selection
Monoclonal Antibodies

18
Q

Primary Response

A

When a pathogen enters the body for the first time.
It is slow as there aren’t as many B-cells to produce antibodies for the pathogen. The body will eventually produce the right antibodies and overcome the infection

19
Q

Secondary Response

A

The next time the same pathogen enters the body

This response is quicker than the first as clonal selection happens faster due to memory cells being present.

20
Q

What are memory cells?

A

Special types of B and T cells which remember the specific antigen and will recognise it the next time it enters the body allowing a quicker immune response.

21
Q

What is natural active immunity?

A

When you become immune after catching a disease.

22
Q

What is artificial active immunity?

A

When you become immune after being given a vaccination which causes you to produce antibodies.

23
Q

What is natural passive immunity?

A

When a baby becomes immune due to antibodies on breast milk from the mother.

24
Q

What is artificial passive immunity?

A

When you become immune after receiving an injection containing antibodies from someone else.

25
Q

Herd Immunity

A

Vaccines protect individual who have them which reduces the occurrence of the disease which protects those who don’t have the vaccine

26
Q

Explain the ethical issues of vaccines.

A

Vaccines must be testes on animal before humans and animal based products may be used in the vaccines which people disagree with.
Testing vaccines can be dangerous as people who have it may put themselves at unnecessary risk as they think they’re protected and the vaccine doesn’t work.
Some vaccines may have side effects.
In an epidemic decisions would have to be made about who would receive it first.

27
Q

Some pathogens can change their surface antigens. This is called…

A

Antigenic variation

28
Q

How does antigenic variation occur.

A

Mutations in the genes of the pathogen

29
Q

What is the problem with antigenic variation.

A

When you are infected for a second time the memory cells will not recognise the antigens and so an immune response is slower as a new primary response is required

30
Q

Antigenic variation make it difficult to develop…..

A

Vaccines

31
Q

Uses of monoclonal antibodies.

A

Medical treatment and diagnosis.

32
Q

Why are monoclonal antibodies used to treat cancer?

A

Cancer cells have tumour marker which are not found on normal cells. Monoclonal antibodies can be produced which are complementary to the tumour markers. Anticancer drugs are attached to the antibodies. The antibodies bind to the tumour marker when the come in contact so the drug will only accumulate in areas where cancerous cells are. So the side effects of the drug are lower are less healthy cells are damaged.

33
Q

What does an ELISA test show?

A

If a patient has any antibodies to a specific antigen or antigens to a certain antibody.

34
Q

Name the 2 types of ELISA

A

Direct

In-direct

35
Q

Describe direct ELISA

A

Antigens from the patient are bound to the inside of a well.
A detection antibody with an enzyme attached , that is complementary to the antigen being tested for is added.
If the antigen being tested for is present the antibodies will bind to them on the side if the well and become immobilised.
The well is washed out to remove any of the unbound antibodies and a substrate solution is added.
If the detection antibody is present a colour change will occur and this means the antigens being tested for are present.

36
Q

Describe indirect ELISA

A

Tests for the presence of a specific antibody.

The known complimentary antigen to the antibody being tested for is bound to the well.
Sample of the patients blood is added. If the antibodies are present in the blood they will bind to the antigens.
The well is washout to remove any unbound material.
A secondary antibody with an enzyme attached is added and this will bind to any antibodies that are being tested for.
A substrate solution is added and a colour change show the antibodies are present.

37
Q

What is HIV?

A

A virus that kills T-helper so the immune system is unable to produce an immune response to other pathogens.

38
Q

What is the latency period?

A

A period when HIV replication drop to a low enough level so that no symptoms are experienced.

39
Q

Describe HIV structure

A

Virus particle has a spherical structure.
HAs a core of RNA and proteins such as reverse transcriptase
Outer protein coating called a capsid
An extra outer layer called an envelope
Attachment proteins on the envelope to bind to helper T-cells

40
Q

Stages of HIV replication.

A
  1. Attachment proteins bind to receptor molecule on the T-helper cells.
  2. Capsid is released into the cell where it uncoats and RNA is released into the cytoplasm
  3. Reverse transcriptase is used to make a complementary DNA strand of the RNA
  4. A double strand of DNA is made and is inserted into the human DNA
  5. Host cell enzyme are used to make the viral DNA
  6. Viral proteins are assembled into new viruses which are released into the rest of the body.
41
Q

How do antiviral drugs work?

A

Trget virus specific enzymes

Year 1 Biology (12 decks)

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