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Green > 2.1.6: Cell Division, cell diversity and cellular organisation > Flashcards

2.1.6: Cell Division, cell diversity and cellular organisation Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 key processes within the cell cycle ?

A
  • Interphase
  • Mitosis or meiosis
  • Cytokinesis
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2
Q

What is included within interphase ?

A

G1,S,G2

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3
Q

Which is the longest stage in the cell cycle ?

A

Interphase

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4
Q

What are the key processes that occur within interphase ?

A
  • Protein synthesis
  • DNA replication
  • Mitochondria grow and divide
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5
Q

How is the cell cycle regulated and controlled ?

A

Checkpoints

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6
Q

What happens within G1 stage of interphase ?

A
  • Organelles except the chromosomes duplicate
  • Protein synthesis for proteins involved in synthesising organelles occurs
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7
Q

What is checked at the G1 checkpoint ?

A
  • Size
  • Nutrients
  • Growth factors
  • DNA damage
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8
Q

What happens within the S stage of interphase ?

A

DNA is replicated in the nucleus and each of the chromosomes is duplicated

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9
Q

What happens in the G2 phase of interphase ?

A
  • Cell continues to grow
  • Energy stores increase
  • DNA checked for copying errors
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10
Q

What is checked at the G2 checkpoint ?

A
  • Cell size
  • DNA copying errors / damage
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11
Q

What happens in the G0 stage of interphase ?

A

Cell can :
- Leave cycle
- Specialise
- Go into rest period

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12
Q

What does mitosis lead to ?

A

Genetically identical diploid cells

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13
Q

What does meiosis lead to ?

A

Genetically identical haploid cells

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14
Q

What is the checkpoint before cytokenesis ?

A

Chromosomes attached to spindle fibres

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15
Q

What is cytokenesis ?

A

Cytoplasmic division of cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis which brings about the separation into 2 daughter cells

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16
Q

How does cytokenesis occur in animals ?

A

Cytoskeleton causes cell membrane to draw inwards

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17
Q

How does cytokenesis occur in plants ?

A

Cell membrane splits due to fusing of vesicles from golgi

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18
Q

What are the 4 stages of mitosis ?

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

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19
Q

What happens in early prophase ?

A
  • Chromosomes condense and become visible
  • Nucleolus disappears and nucleolus breaks down
  • Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell in animal cells
  • Centrioles make protein microtubules which form spindle fibres
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20
Q

What happens in late prophase ?

A

Spindle fibres attach to centromeres on sister chromatids of chromosomes

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21
Q

What happens in metaphase ?

A
  • Chromosomes are moved by spindle fibres to align along the metaphase plate (equator)
  • Spindle fibres are released from centrioles and attach to centromere
  • Spindle assembly checkpoint
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22
Q

What happens in anaphase ?

A
  • Centromeres divide and chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of cell by spindle fibres ( form a ‘V’ shape whilst being dragged through liquid cytosol)
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23
Q

What is required for anaphase ?

A

ATP from respiration in mitochondria

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24
Q

What happens in telophase ?

A
  • Chromatids have reached poles
  • 2 sets of chromatids assemble to form chromosomes
  • Spindle fibres disintegrate
  • Nuclear envelope reforms
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25
Q

What is different for mitosis in plants vs animals ?

A
  • In the meristem (tips of roots and shoots) not in stem cells
  • No centrioles, instead tubulin protein threads are made in cytoplasm
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26
Q

Give 3 significances of mitosis in life cycles

A
  • Growth
  • Tissue repair
  • Asexual reproduction in plants, animals and fungi
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27
Q

How do you calculate the mitotic index ?

A

number of cells in mitosis
————————————– x100
total number of cells

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28
Q

What happens in prophase 1 of meiosis ?

A
  • Homologous chromosomes pair to form bivalents
  • Same as mitosis
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29
Q

What happens in metaphase 1 of meiosis ?

A
  • Homologous chromosomes are moved by spindle fibres to form a metaphase plate at the equator of the cell
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30
Q

What happens in anaphase 1 of meiosis ?

A
  • Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart to each pole by spindle fibres
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31
Q
A
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32
Q
A
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33
Q
A
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34
Q

What happens in telophase ?

A
  • Homologous chromosomes have reached poles
  • Spindle fibres disintegrate
  • Nuclear envelope reforms
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34
Q

What is different about the second half of meiosis compared to mitosis ?

A
  • In anaphase 2 the spindle fibres attach to centromere on sister chromatids not homologous chromosomes
  • 2 nuclear divisions result in 4 genetically different haploid cells
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34
Q

Summarise the 3 ways that meiosis can introduce genetic variation

A
  • Crossing over in prophase 1
  • Independent assortment of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids
  • Random mutations
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35
Q

How do you work out the number of variations of a chromosomes in an organism ?

A

number of chromosomes
2

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35
Q

Define haploid

A

One copy of each chromosome

35
Q

Define homologous chromosome

A

Chromosomes with the same genes and loci but can have different alleles

36
Q

Define diploid

A

Two copies of each chromosome

37
Q

What is independent assortment ?

A
  • During metaphase 1 , homologous chromosomes line up along equator but it’s random which side of the equator the paternal and maternal chromosomes align
  • Order determines which chromosomes end up in which gamete
38
Q

What is the function of an erythrocyte ?

A

Red blood cells for transport of oxygen in animals

39
Q

What is crossing over ?

A
  • During prophase 1 , homologous chromosomes pair to form bivalents
  • Crossing over of genetic material can occur between non-sister chromatids which forms a chiasma
  • Breaks in the genetic material on chromatids then results in new combinations of alleles in gametes
40
Q

What are the specializations of erythrocytes ?

A
  • Bioconcave to increase SA for diffusion and increase its flexibility to fit through narrow capillaries
  • No nucleus so there is more space to hold haemoglobin to increase the transport of oxygen
41
Q

What is the specialization of ciliated epithelium ?

A

Hair like projections to move substances such as mucus away from the lungs

42
Q

What is the function of guard cells ?

A

Pairs of guard cells form stomata on underside of lead for CO2 to enter plants

42
Q

What are the specializations of palisade cells ?

A
  • Thin cell walls to reduce the diffusion path of CO2
  • Large vacuole to maintain turgor pressure
  • Contain many chloroplasts yo absorb maximum light energy for photosynthesis
43
Q

What is the function of palisade cells ?

A

Rectangular, tightly packed cells for photosynthesis in the mesophyll layer of leaves

44
Q

What are the specializations of guard cells ?

A
  • Cell wall thicker on one side so as volume changes, cell doesn’t change shape symmetrically
  • Swell less due to osmotic forces when cell loses water to close stomata and control water loss by transpiration
45
Q

What is the function and location of root hair cells ?

A

Located at surface of roots near growing tip to absorb water and nutrients from the soil

46
Q

What are the specializations of root hair cells ?

A
  • Long extension root hairs to increase SA for maximum water and mineral uptake
  • Many mitochondria to release lots of energy for active transport of mineral ions
47
Q

What is a specialization of squamous epithelium ?

A

Flat cells so there is a short diffusion path

48
Q

What is the function of sperm cells ?

A

Male gamete which delivers genetic information to female gametes in animals

49
Q

What are the specializations of sperm cells ?

A
  • Flagellum contains many mitochondria to release energy for locomotion so sperm can move towards egg
  • Head contains acrosomes with digestive enzymes to digest wall of egg for sperm to penetrate and fertilise
50
Q
A
51
Q
A
52
Q

What are the specializations of neutrophils ?

A
  • Characteristic multi lobed nucleus so flexible to fit through small gaps, get to the infection site and engulf the pathogen
  • Granular cytoplasm contains lysosomes with hydrolytic enzymes to digest pathogen
53
Q

What is the function of neutrophils ?

A

Type of white blood cell for immune system in animals

54
Q

What is the function of squamous epithelia tissue ?

A

Forms linings (e.g. lungs for rapid diffusion of 02 into blood)

55
Q

What is the specialization of squamous epithelia tissue ?

A

Single layer of flat cells for a short diffusion path

56
Q

What is the function of ciliated epithelia tissue ?

A

Prevents bacteria reaching alveoli in lungs

57
Q

What are the specializations of ciliated epithelia tissue ?

A
  • Hair like projections to move substances
  • Contain goblet cells to release mucus and trap molecules
57
Q

What is the function of cartilage tissue ?

A

Connective tissue in outer ear/nose made of elastin + collagen fibres

58
Q

What is the specialization of cartilage tissue ?

A

Firm and flexible to provide structural support and prevent damage from bones rubbing together

59
Q

What is the function of xylem tissue ?

A

Vascular tissue within vascular bundles for transport of water and mineral ions

60
Q

Where and what is xylem and phloem tissue made from ?

A

Made from stem cells in the meristem

61
Q

What are the specializations of xylem tissue ?

A
  • Elongated hollow dead cells for more space for transport of water and mineral ions
  • Lignin in cell walls for waterproofing, strength and structural support
62
Q

Where is muscle tissue found muscle tissue ?

A

Smooth muscle is found within organs and cardiac muscle within the heart

63
Q

What are the specializations of muscle tissue ?

A
  • Tissues can contract and relax to create movement of bones and the body
  • Contain skeletal muscles ( which have the contractile proteins actin + myosin) to cause the skeleton to move
64
Q

What is the function of phloem tissue ?

A

Vascular tissue within vascular bundles for transport of sugars AND …

65
Q

What are the specializations of phloem tissue ?

A
  • Made of sieve tube elements with perforated end walls and a lack of organelles for easier transport of sugars
  • Companion cells which contain organelles to provide resources for sieve tube elements
66
Q

What are the 4 types of animal specialized tissue ?

A
  • Nervous
  • Epithelial
  • Muscle
  • Connective
67
Q

What is the function of nervous tissue ?

A

Transmission of electrical impulses

67
Q

What is the function of epithelial tissue ?

A

Cover internal and external surfaces

68
Q

What is the function of connective tissue ?

A

Holds together tissues and transport mediums

69
Q

What are the 2 types of specialized plant tissue ?

A
  • Epidermis
  • Vascular
70
Q

What is the function of epidermis tissue ?

A

Cover plant surfaces with a waxy cuticle for waterproofing and stomata for gas exchange

71
Q

What is the function of vascular tissue ?

A

Transport of substances throughout the plant

72
Q

Define stem cells

A

Undifferentiated cells that can self renew and become specialized

73
Q

Through what process does a stem cell differentiate through ?

A

The cell cycle

74
Q

What do the stem cells in bone marrow differentiate into ?

A

Erythrocytes and neutrophils

75
Q

What do the stem cells in the meristem differentiate into ?

A

Xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes

76
Q

What are the 3 potential uses of stem cell treatment ?

A
  • Repairing damaged tissue
  • Treatment of neurological conditions ( Parkinsons )
  • Research into developmental biology
77
Q

Give 3 supporting arguments for stem cell research

A
  • Avoids need for animal testing
  • Saves human life through treatment of incurable diseases
  • Reduces suffering
78
Q

Give 2 against arguments for stem cell research

A
  • Destroys a human embryo
  • Can lead to uncontrollable division during treatment which could result in a tumor
79
Q

What are the 3 types of stem cell ?

A
  • Totipotent
  • Pluripotent
  • Multi/uni potent
80
Q

Describe features of totipotent stem cells

A
  • Can divide and produce any type of body cell
  • Translate part of their DNA which results in specialization
  • Only occurs for limited time in mammalian embryos
  • Can develop into extra embryonic tissues ( placenta + umbilical chord)
81
Q

Describe features of pluripotent stem cells

A
  • Found in embryos
  • Can become any type of cell except extra embryonic
  • Used in research and treatment
82
Q

Describe features of multi/uni potent stem cells

A
  • Found in mature mammals
  • e.g. in bone marrow
  • Can only divide to form a limited number of cell types
83
Q

What can bone marrow differentiate into compared to a uni potent stem cell ?

A

Types of blood cell whereas unipotent can only differentiate into 1 type of cell

84
Q

Give the steps for induced pluripotent stem cell production

A
  • Cell from body is genetically reprogrammed
  • iPS cell produced which behaves like an embryonic cell
  • iPS cells are cultured in a lab
  • Differentiation occurs
  • All possible types of specialized cell produced
85
Q

What is the benefit of iPS culture ?

A

All possible types of specialized cell can be produced without the need for embryos being destroyed or ethical issues around therapeutic cloning and tumors

86
Q

Give 3 differences between cell division in plants and animals

A
  • No centrioles in plants so tubulin protein threads are made in the cytoplasm
  • Cytokinesis starts with the formation of the cell plate in plants
  • Occurs in meristem in plants
87
Q

Give 3 observations if cell stops dividing at G2 checkpoint

A
  • Larger nucleus
  • No visible chromosomes
  • Nuclear envelope still present

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