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Biology > 2.1.6 > Flashcards

2.1.6 Flashcards

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1
Q

what happens in phase 1 of interphase G1

A

proteins from which organelles are synthesised are produced and organelles replicate
Cell increases in size

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2
Q

What happens in S phase of interphase

A

DNA is replicated in nucleus

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3
Q

In G2 cells

A

continue to increase in size
energy stores increased
duplicated DNA checked for errors

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4
Q

mitotic phase consists of

A

mitosis
cytokinesis

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5
Q

In cytokineses

A

cytoplasm divides and two celles produced

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6
Q

three reasons a cell leaves cell cycle and enters G0

A

Differentiation (specialised cell carries out its function)
Damaged DNA(damaged cell cant divide)
Age(more senescent cells)

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7
Q

checkpoints monitor and

A

verify whether processes at each phase of cell cycle have been accurately completed before cell can progress into next phase

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8
Q

want is checked at the different checkpoints

A

G1
cell size, nutrients, growth factors, DNA damage
G2
cell size DNA damage and replication

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9
Q

the metaphase checkpoint is at the point

A

where all chromosomes are attached to spindles and aligned

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10
Q

how can we treat cancer(rapid division)

A

prevent DNA replication
Inhibit metaphase

but this would affect normal cells(hair loss)

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11
Q

how can we treat cancer(rapid division)

A

prevent DNA replication
Inhibit metaphase

but this would affect normal cells(hair loss)

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12
Q

mitosis refers to

A

nuclear division

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13
Q

When replicated Each chromosome converted into two identical chromosomes called

A

chromatids

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14
Q

two chromatids held together at

A

centromere

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15
Q

in prophase

A

chromatin fibres coil and condense into chromosomes
nucleolus disappears
nuclear membrane breaks down

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16
Q

prophase
spindle fibres link poles of cell
two centrioles migrate to

A

opposite ends of cell
spindle fibres attach to centromeres and start to move chromosomes to centre of cell
By end nuclear envelope disappeared

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17
Q

Metaphase
chromosomes are

A

moved by the spindle fibres to form metaphase plate and held here

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18
Q

In anaphase

A

centromeres divide
chromatids separated and pulled opposite ends cell by shortening spindle fibres

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19
Q

In telophase

A

chromatids at poles now chromosomes
nuclear envelope reforms
chromosomes uncoil
nucleolus forms
mitosis over cytokinesis then begins

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20
Q

Cytokinesis in animal cells

A

cleavage furrow middle of cell
cell surface membrane pulled inwards until can fuse

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21
Q

cytokinesis in plant cells

A

vesicles assemble middle of cell
fuse with eachother and cell surface membrane
cell wall then forms along membrane

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22
Q

Gamete is a haploid

A

cell involved in sexual reproduction

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23
Q

homologous chromosomes are

A

pairs of genes for each characteristic

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24
Q

each chromosome in a homologous pair has the same gene at the same

A

loci

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25
Q

Different alleles of a gene have the same locus()

A

(position on a particular chromosome)

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26
Q

why are homologous chromosomes same size

A

same genes in same positions

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27
Q

Meiosis 1 overview

A

réduction division
pair of homologous chromosomes separated
after first division cells are haploid

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28
Q

Meiosis 2 overview

A

pairs of chromatids are separated
four haploid daughter produced

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29
Q

Meiosis 1
Prophase 1
homologous chromosomes

A

pair up forming bivalents

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30
Q

chromatids entangling is called

A

crossing over

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31
Q

Meiosis 1
Metaphase 1

A

homologous pairs of chromosomes assemble along metaphase plate

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32
Q

what is independent assortment
and what does it result in

A

when orientation of each homologous pair on metaphase plate is random and independent of any other pair
maternal could face either pole
results in genetic variation

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33
Q

Anaphase 1

A

chromatids stay joined to eachother but homologous pairs pulled to each pole

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34
Q

genetic variation in random fertilisation

A

any sperm can fertilise any egg
each individual won’t exist before or again

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35
Q

genetic recombination takes place at random

A

chromosomes can cross over and swap blocks of genes

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36
Q

chiasma is the point

A

where chromosomes cross over

37
Q

reduction division is where

A

less chromosomes after division

38
Q

telophase 1 summary

A

chromosomes assemble at pole
nuclear membrane forms
chromosomes uncoil

39
Q

meiosis
cells after first division are

A

haploid

40
Q

in prophase 2 chromosomes condense and

A

nuclear envelope breaks down
spindle formations starts

41
Q

in Metaphase 2 what assembles on the metaphase plate

A

individual chromosomes

42
Q

because of crossing over

A

chromatids aren’t identical so there is independent assortment and genetic variation

43
Q

anaphase 2 the chromatids of the individual chromosomes

A

are pulled to poles after division of centromeres

44
Q

what happens telophase 2

A

chromatids assemble at poles and uncoil form chromatin
envelope reforms nucleolus visible

45
Q

cells after meiosis are haploid due to

A

reduction division

46
Q

why are daughter cells genetically different in meiosis

A

crossing over and independent assortment

47
Q

point of breakage of cross over is

A

chiasmata

48
Q

what shape does a erythrocyte have

A

biconcave to increase sa:v

49
Q

Give two properties of erythrocytes and how this relates to function

A

No nuclei mitochondria golgi apparatus RER
makes more space for the protein haemoglobin
flexible
squeeze through narrow capillaries

50
Q

shape of a neutrophil nucleus

A

multi lobed nucleus for fitting in small gaps

51
Q

granular cytoplasm in neutrophil contains

A

lysosomes which contain digestive enzymes

52
Q

shape of squamous epithelial cell

A

flat and thin
for rapid diffusion
one cell thick

53
Q

one example of use of squamous epithelial cells

A

lines lungs
rapid diffusion oxygen into blood

54
Q

why are palisade cells tall and thin

A

so can be closely packed in a continuous layer for light absorption
thin cell walls increase rate of diffusion for carbon dioxide

55
Q

in palisade cells chloroplasts can move

A

within cytoplasm

56
Q

why do palisade cells have a large vacuole

A

maintains turgor pressure

57
Q

in a guard cell when stoma is open it is

A

turgid and co2 enters

58
Q

a tissue is made up of

A

a collection of differentiated cells that have a specialised function(s)
thus each tissue adapted to particular role within organism

59
Q

cartilage is a connective tissue

chondrocyte cells produce

A

extracellular matrix of collagen fibres(strength) and elastin fibres (flexibility)

60
Q

skeletal muscle fibres contain myofibrils which contain

A

contractile proteins

61
Q

three types of muscle tissue

A

skeletal-movement
smooth-involuntary
cardiac-heart

62
Q

a bundle of muscle fibres is called a

A

fascicle

63
Q

two tissues in plants

A

epidermis
vascular

64
Q

vascular tissue in plants is for

A

transport

65
Q

in xylem tissue

A

elongated dead cells
walls strengthened by lignin
no cytoplasm
wide lumen

66
Q

parenchyma cells do what with xylem tissue

A

fill gaps

67
Q

phloem tissue is responsible for the transport

A

of organic nutrients

68
Q

an organ is a

A

collection of tissues that are adapted to perform a particular function in an organism

69
Q

what is an organ system

A

number of organs working together for the same function in body
digestive system
takes on food breaks down large insoluble molecules into smaller soluble ones
absorbs nutrients
retains water
removes undigested material from body

70
Q

stem cells are

A

undifferentiated unspecialised cells that can become any one of the range of specialised cells in the organism

71
Q

once stem cells have become specialised they lose the

A

ability to divide entering G0 phase of cell cycle

72
Q

why does stem cell activity have to be strictly controlled

A

if don’t divide fast enough
tissues aren’t efficiently replaced (aging)
divide too fast
tumours and cancer

73
Q

the greater the number of cell types a stem cell can differentiate into

A

the greater it’s potency

74
Q

totipotent stem cells can

A

differentiate into any and all types of cells
zygote and cells from its first few divisions

75
Q

pluripotent stem cells can form all tissue types but not

A

whole organisms

76
Q

pluripotent stem cells can form all tissue types but not

A

whole organisms

77
Q

multi potent stem cells can only

A

form a range of cells within a certain type of tissue

78
Q

all blood cells are derived from stem cells in

A

the bone marrow

79
Q

due to lack of nucleus and organelles erythrocytes

A

have lifespan of 120 days constantly need to be replaced

80
Q

neutrophils live for

A

6 hours!

81
Q

embryonic stem cells are

A

totipotent

82
Q

after seven days what have embryonic stem cells formed

A

mass of cells
blastocyst
pluripotent

83
Q

tissue(adult) stem cells are

A

found in specific areas
multi potent

84
Q

where are stem cells found in plants

A

meristematic tissue
which is found wherever growth is occurring tips of roots and shoots( apical meristems)

85
Q

what is vascular cambium

A

meristematic tissue between phloem and xylem tissue

cells originating from this region differentiate into cells present in xylem and phloem tissue

86
Q

give an example of how stem cells have been used

A

treating burns(grown on biodegradable mesh produce new skin faster than taking a graft from another part their body)

87
Q

why arent alternatives to embryonic stem cells for curing diseases as good

A

umbilical cord are only multi potent
tissue adult stem cells don’t divide as well more likely to have mutations

88
Q

induced pluripotent stem cells are

A

adult stem cells genetically modified to act like embrionic(pluripotent)

Biology (5 decks)

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