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Animal Diversity > 20-22: Locomotion > Flashcards

20-22: Locomotion Flashcards

1
Q

Why must animals locomote?

A

Find food

Avoid becoming food

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2
Q

What is buoyancy?

A

An upwards force that opposes the weight of an immersed object

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3
Q

What does buoyancy force depend on?

A

Volume

An object is buoyant if it is less dense than water

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4
Q

Density =

A

Mass x volume

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5
Q

How seals overcome buoyancy

A

Exhale before diving to reduce buoyancy
They can remain submerged for over 20 mins
Blood contains more haemoglobin than us
Store oxygen in myoglobin

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6
Q

How diving birds overcome buoyancy

A

Compress their plumage

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7
Q

How jellyfish maintain neutral buoyancy

A

Do not possess well defined muscle tissue
Circular muscles are arranged as distinct bands on subumbrella surface
Contract/relax, causing bell to pulse

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8
Q

How siphonophores (hydrozoa) maintain buoyancy

A

Have swimming bells called nectophore
These contain mesogloea (mainly water)
It is used in jet propulsion

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9
Q

How does the Portuguese man o’ war maintain buoyancy?

A

Has a pneumatophore- a gas filled bladder and sail
This is filled with carbon monoxide from a gas gland
A siphon allows the gas to be expelled quickly, allowing it to be submerged

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10
Q

How do fish and invertebrates change body temperature in water?

A

Move up and down the water column- the higher in the column, the warmer and more buoyant they are
They cannot change their own because they are ectothermic

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11
Q

How do bathypelagic (1000-4000m depth) achieve neutral buoyancy?

A

Deposit wax esters in their tissues

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12
Q

What are wax esters?

A

Ester of fatty acid and fatty alcohol

Same chemical properties as triglycerides, but indigestible

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13
Q

Sperm whales’ use of lipid

A

Lipid contained in a large spermaceti organ in head
To descend, lipid cools until it solidifies
Increase in density makes whales able to sink without much downwards swimming

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14
Q

Calanoides actus (3mm long) use of lipid

A

Changes molecular structure of waxy esters

Makes them solid to induce sinking

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15
Q

What are open (Physostomous) swim bladders?

A

There is a connection (pneumatic duct) between the gas bladder and the esophagus

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16
Q

How do physostomous swim bladders work?

A

Gases for filling bladder are retrieved from the water surface
Pneumatic duct connects swim bladder to oesophagus
Eg. primitive ray-finned fish,-carp, catfish, eels

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17
Q

How do closed (Physoclistous) swim bladders work?

A

Found in ray-finned fish
The rete mirible fills the swim bladder via the gas gland with oxygen
Gas is reabsorbed by the oval as required

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18
Q

How do organisms stay stable when submerged?

A

Centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy should not be in the same place
When submerged, centre of gravity should be directly below the centre of buoyancy

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19
Q

How do organisms stay stable on the water surface?

A

Centre of gravity is above the centre of buoyancy

The centre of buoyancy moves as the body tilts

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20
Q

What is Reynolds number? (Re)

A 
The flow around an organism depends on the intertial force/viscous force ratio (Re) of the fluid
Low Re (<10) = no vortices generated
High Re (>10) = vortices may be generated (if the object isn't streamlined)
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21
Q

Fluid flow at low Re

A

Inertia is negligible compared to drag
Fluid has no inertia so remains attached to objects’ surface- continues moving downstream
Streamlining is ineffectual as drag is dependent on surface area
Like moving through treacle

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22
Q

Fluid low at high Re

A

Inertia is more dominant

To prevent separation of the flow (drag), a body needs to be streamlined

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23
Q

Implications of a low Re for locomotion

A

When propulsion stops, motion stops

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24
Q

How do ostracods (seed shrimps) swim?

A

Use a second antennae

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25
Q

How do shrimps swim?

A

Use pleopods (swimming legs)

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26
Q

How do molluscs swim?

A

Jet propulsion
Jet is created by inflating the mantle cavity with water and then contracting it
The direction is dictated by the funnel
Eg. squid, scallops

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27
Q

What happens if an animal is denser than water?

A

It needs to generate lift which requires energy

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28
Q

What happens if an animals is less dense than water?

A

It will generate more drag due to its greater volume

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29
Q

At low speeds-

A

it is more economical to reduce density

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30
Q

At high speeds-

A

a more streamlined body and lift based on propulsion

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31
Q

Low speed teleosts feaures

A

Buoyancy and drag based propulsion

Have fins for rowing- move a volume of water, momentum

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32
Q

3 types of drag

A

Viscous drag
Pressure drag
Induced drag

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33
Q

What is viscous drag?

A

Parasite/skin friction drag
Caused by layers of fluid sticking to the object and to one another
It increases with speed

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34
Q

What is pressure drag?

A

Form/profile drag
Drag force due to inertia of the fluid- the resistance it has to being pushed to the side
Increases with speed
Depends on turbulence and shape

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35
Q

What is induced drag?

A

Consequence of producing lift
Decreases with speed
Depends on the the wing angle

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36
Q

What is labriform swimming?

A

2 types-
Drag-based pectoral fin swimming
Lift based pectoral fin swimming

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37
Q

What is drag-based pectoral fin swimming?

A

Has a power stroke and a recovery stroke- like rowing

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38
Q

What is lift-based pectoral fin swimming?

A

Has an abduction, adduction, and refraction

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39
Q

Depth control by sharks

A

Sharks are denser than water, so use their pectoral fins to generate lift
Some have metabolically inert squalene in their livers
Cartilage is lighter than bone

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40
Q

Drag reduction strategies

A

Streamlined body shape

Reduce surface roughness

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41
Q

What do shark denticles do?

A

Prevent flow separation (vortex generation), so reduce drag

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42
Q

How many land invasions did invertebrates do and what were they?

A

2
Molluscs (snails)
Arthropods (eurypterids- sea scorpions)

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43
Q

How many land invasions did vertebrates do and what were they?

A

1

Stout finned fish- subcarangiform swimmer, streamlined body, gills, gas bladder

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44
Q

Why transition to land?

A

New food sources
Avoid predators and competition
O2 abundance

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45
Q

Problems faced on the land

A

Temperature regulation
Water evaporation
Air breathing
Gamete desiccation
Gravity- water provides buoyancy to support body and food
Lift based propulsion not practical in air

46
Q

What was the first arthropod onto land?

A

Eurypterids (sea scorpions)

47
Q

Features of eurypterids

A

Large stout legs- capable of terrestrial locomotion

6 legged and 8 legged walking

48
Q

What is the earliest terrestrial gastropod and when from?

A

Maturipupa

From the Carboniferous

49
Q

What was Eusthenopteron?

A

Genus of sarcopterygian (lobe-finned fish)
From the Devonian
Limb-like fins that may have helped to pull it through shallow lagoons

50
Q

What digits are suited to walking?

A

Forward facing

Gives traction to substrate

51
Q

What was Ichthyostega?

A 
Land dweller in the Devonian
Half amphibian, half lobe-finned fish
Strenghtened pectoral and pelvic girdles
Robust zygapophyses
Webbed toes
Dragged belly along ground
52
Q

What are zygapophyses?

A

Notches that allow vertebrae to lock together

Strenghtens, so better for land

53
Q

What had the first 5 digit limb found?

A

Pederpes
Early Carniforous- ‘Romer’s gap’
Forward facing feet
5 digits

54
Q

What were primitive gaits like?

A

Evolved from lateral undulations in fish swimming- still used by amphibians and reptiles eg. salamanders
Belly walkers

55
Q

Forces on sprawling gait

A

Forces on the scapula, so has to be very robust

56
Q

Forces on erect gait

A

Forces are also supported by the spine, so can have a smaller pelvis and scapula

57
Q

3 types of posture + examples

A

Crouched- quail, rats
Sprawling- iguana
Upright- ostrich, deer

58
Q

Ways of increasing locomotion speed

A

Get bigger
Increase stride frequency
Increase stride length

59
Q

How to increase stride length

A 
More upright posture
Run on tips of toes
Lengthen limbs
Flex spine- eg. cheetah
Increase distance travelled when feet are off the ground- eg. run instead of walk
60
Q

Geometrically larger=

A

SA:V ratio decreases, so area to attach muscle decreases

Exoskeleton size limited

61
Q

What are hydrostatic skeletons?

A

Mainly in aquatic invertebrates
Water is an imcompressible fluid, so can’t reduce its volume
Provides resistance for the contraction of muscles to act against
Some are reinforced with collagen to control and limit shape change

62
Q

Locomotion in earth worms

A

Circular muscle contraction causes fluid to press on the longitudinal muscles
Long muscles stretch, elongating worm
Wave of contractions produces forward movement

63
Q

Advantages of a hydrostatic skeleton

A

Some can take up O2 and water and excrete waste through the skin
Eliminates need for separate transport systems, saving energy
Skeletons are light compared to rigid skeletons, so less muscle mass is required to move them

64
Q

Disadvantages of a hydrostatic skeleton

A

Little protection against desiccation

Restricted to aquatic environment unless very small

65
Q

What are muscular hydrostats?

A

Constant volume of incompressible liquid
Instead of single fluid filled cavity, 3D matrix of muscle
Eg. elephant trunks, star nosed mole

66
Q

Arthropod exoskeleton features

A

Chitinous

Covers entire body inc. eyes

67
Q

Exoskeleton advantages

A

Protective layer

Helps prevent dessication

68
Q

Exoskeleton disadvantages

A

Can’t expand as animal grows- moult- 2hrs, vulnerable

Size constraints

69
Q

Stress similarity in terrestrial locomotion

A

Stress increases as get larger
Impossible to produce bones of size needed in a giant
But only if geometrically similar- support with thicker bones

70
Q

What are plantigrade species?

A

Place the full length of the foot on the ground with each stride
Eg. humans, bears

71
Q

What are digitigrade species?

A

Walk with most of the length of digits, but not soles of feet, in contact with ground
Eg. dogs, birds

72
Q

What are unguligrade species?

A

Walk on their tiptoes, often hooves

Eg. horses, antelope

73
Q

What does flexing the spine while moving do?

A

Lengthens the stride

74
Q

What is walking?

A

One leg is always on the ground
Potential energy is dependent on height from the ground
Inverted pendulum motion
Potential energy to kinetic energy

75
Q

What is running?

A

Aerial phase is present
Kinetic energy and potential energy are converted to elastic energy
Achilles tendon stores elastic energy, restores it

76
Q

Advantages of bipedalism

A

Frees forelimbs for carrying/wings
Eyes set higher, so can see further
Reduces SA exposed to sun

77
Q

Chimpanzee bipedalism

A

Small bums- unstable legs
Can’t extend knee-joints to straighten leg
Small Achilles tendon

78
Q

What is flight?

A

‘Descending at more than 45 degrees from vertical (less than is falling)’
‘Controlled aerial behaviour with/without obvious aerodynamic structures’

79
Q

4 flight subdivisions

A

Parachuting
Directed aerial descent
Gliding
Flapping flight

80
Q

2 types of drag

A

Friction drag

Pressure drag

81
Q

What is friction drag?

A

Depends on surface area in contact with the air

82
Q

What is pressure drag?

A

Depends on the shape

Result of flow separation causing low pressure behind the object

83
Q

What does parachuting require?

A

An air brake

Want to make as big a surface area as possible

84
Q

What is controlled aerial descent?

A

Animals can use angular momentum

Or uneven air resistance (drag)

85
Q

What is angular momentum?

A

Mass x speed x distance from pivot point
Change one and the other change to compensate
Allows uneven drag

86
Q

What is uneven drag?

A

Can stick a limb out to change speed, direction etc

Can also generate some lift by spreading out limbs or laying flat

87
Q

How do cats turn in the air?

A

Use angular momentum
Spread hind limbs wide, pull in fore-limbs
Turn front half quickly in one direction, hind legs move slowly in other direction
Then do the opposite- fore-limbs wide, hind narrow
Angular momentum of cats body is always 0

88
Q

How do geckos always land on their feet?

A

Use their tail to right themselves in the air

89
Q

Examples of vertebrate directed aerial descenders

A

Wallace’s flying frog

Flying gecko

90
Q

What is lift?

A

Air has to travel further over the top of the wing
Produced in animals that glide
Drag is also produced, so animal still falls

91
Q

Examples of animals that glide

A

Sugar gliders
Flying fish
Flying lizards

92
Q

What does flapping (powered) flight require?

A

Thrust

Produced by reversing the circulation sense of the vortices shed from the animal

93
Q

4 groups of animals that have evolved flapping flight separately

A

Insects
Pterosaurs
Bats
Birds

94
Q

Insect adaptations for flight

A

Thin chitinous membrane wings

System of sclerotized veins

95
Q

Pterosaur adaptations for flight

A

Elongated digit

Membrane wing

96
Q

Bat adaptations for flight

A

Elongated digits

Membrane wing

97
Q

Bird adaptations for flight

A

Feathered wing

98
Q

Evolution of insect flight

A

Limited evidence

No transitional fossils found

99
Q

Directed aerial control in ants

A

Only tree nesting species are capable of it
But morphologically similar to ground species- can only rotate in air
Gliding ants cannot glide at night
Tree ants that glide onto leaf litter often killed by other ants/insects

100
Q

Evolution of pterosaur flight

A

220-65mya

No transitional fossil forms (half-winged)

101
Q

Pterosaur skeleton features

A

Pteroid bone that supports the propatagium
Unique to pterosaurs
Don’t know orientation of bone

102
Q

Wing membrane shapes in pterosaurs

A

Varied between different groups
Not many fossilised membranes
Membrane attachment sites vary
Some may have been bird-like, some more bat-like

103
Q

How did pterosaurs move on land?

A

Track-ways suggest they were quadrupedal

Could maybe take off from land?

104
Q

Evolution of bat flight

A

Arboreal origin- phylogeny and membrane attachment suggest this
But bats can take off from and move across the ground

105
Q

Origin of bird flight theories

A

Wing-assisted incline running (WAIR)

106
Q

What was wing-assisted incline running?

A

Jumping out of something high, or pouncing, ambushing prey from rocks
Stage of chick development may mirror flight development

107
Q

Anatomical evidence of flight capabilities in Archaeopteryx

A

Small sternum
No keel
No foramen triosseum (hole in the shoulder for flight tendon)
Shoulder anatomy suggests dorsal elevation wasn’t possible

108
Q

Anatomical evidence of flight capabilities in Confuciusornis

A

Small sternum
Shallow keel
No forament triosseum
Shoulder anatomy suggests dorsal elevation of the limb wasn’t possible

109
Q

What are the pivotal flight structure in birds?

A

Flight feathers (thin feathers are not capable of sustaining flight)

110
Q

Vane asymmetry in Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis

A

Asymmetry of vanes similar to flightless modern birds

Animal Diversity (12 decks)

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