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Animal Diversity > 20-22: Locomotion > Flashcards

20-22: Locomotion Flashcards

1
Q

Why must animals locomote?

A

Find food

Avoid becoming food

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2
Q

What is buoyancy?

A

An upwards force that opposes the weight of an immersed object

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3
Q

What does buoyancy force depend on?

A

Volume

An object is buoyant if it is less dense than water

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4
Q

Density =

A

Mass x volume

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5
Q

How seals overcome buoyancy

A

Exhale before diving to reduce buoyancy
They can remain submerged for over 20 mins
Blood contains more haemoglobin than us
Store oxygen in myoglobin

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6
Q

How diving birds overcome buoyancy

A

Compress their plumage

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7
Q

How jellyfish maintain neutral buoyancy

A

Do not possess well defined muscle tissue
Circular muscles are arranged as distinct bands on subumbrella surface
Contract/relax, causing bell to pulse

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8
Q

How siphonophores (hydrozoa) maintain buoyancy

A

Have swimming bells called nectophore
These contain mesogloea (mainly water)
It is used in jet propulsion

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9
Q

How does the Portuguese man o’ war maintain buoyancy?

A

Has a pneumatophore- a gas filled bladder and sail
This is filled with carbon monoxide from a gas gland
A siphon allows the gas to be expelled quickly, allowing it to be submerged

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10
Q

How do fish and invertebrates change body temperature in water?

A

Move up and down the water column- the higher in the column, the warmer and more buoyant they are
They cannot change their own because they are ectothermic

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11
Q

How do bathypelagic (1000-4000m depth) achieve neutral buoyancy?

A

Deposit wax esters in their tissues

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12
Q

What are wax esters?

A

Ester of fatty acid and fatty alcohol

Same chemical properties as triglycerides, but indigestible

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13
Q

Sperm whales’ use of lipid

A

Lipid contained in a large spermaceti organ in head
To descend, lipid cools until it solidifies
Increase in density makes whales able to sink without much downwards swimming

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14
Q

Calanoides actus (3mm long) use of lipid

A

Changes molecular structure of waxy esters

Makes them solid to induce sinking

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15
Q

What are open (Physostomous) swim bladders?

A

There is a connection (pneumatic duct) between the gas bladder and the esophagus

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16
Q

How do physostomous swim bladders work?

A

Gases for filling bladder are retrieved from the water surface
Pneumatic duct connects swim bladder to oesophagus
Eg. primitive ray-finned fish,-carp, catfish, eels

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17
Q

How do closed (Physoclistous) swim bladders work?

A

Found in ray-finned fish
The rete mirible fills the swim bladder via the gas gland with oxygen
Gas is reabsorbed by the oval as required

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18
Q

How do organisms stay stable when submerged?

A

Centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy should not be in the same place
When submerged, centre of gravity should be directly below the centre of buoyancy

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19
Q

How do organisms stay stable on the water surface?

A

Centre of gravity is above the centre of buoyancy

The centre of buoyancy moves as the body tilts

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20
Q

What is Reynolds number? (Re)

A 
The flow around an organism depends on the intertial force/viscous force ratio (Re) of the fluid
Low Re (<10) = no vortices generated
High Re (>10) = vortices may be generated (if the object isn't streamlined)
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21
Q

Fluid flow at low Re

A

Inertia is negligible compared to drag
Fluid has no inertia so remains attached to objects’ surface- continues moving downstream
Streamlining is ineffectual as drag is dependent on surface area
Like moving through treacle

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22
Q

Fluid low at high Re

A

Inertia is more dominant

To prevent separation of the flow (drag), a body needs to be streamlined

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23
Q

Implications of a low Re for locomotion

A

When propulsion stops, motion stops

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24
Q

How do ostracods (seed shrimps) swim?

A

Use a second antennae

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25
How do shrimps swim?
Use pleopods (swimming legs)
26
How do molluscs swim?
Jet propulsion Jet is created by inflating the mantle cavity with water and then contracting it The direction is dictated by the funnel Eg. squid, scallops
27
What happens if an animal is denser than water?
It needs to generate lift which requires energy
28
What happens if an animals is less dense than water?
It will generate more drag due to its greater volume
29
At low speeds-
it is more economical to reduce density
30
At high speeds-
a more streamlined body and lift based on propulsion
31
Low speed teleosts feaures
Buoyancy and drag based propulsion | Have fins for rowing- move a volume of water, momentum
32
3 types of drag
Viscous drag Pressure drag Induced drag
33
What is viscous drag?
Parasite/skin friction drag Caused by layers of fluid sticking to the object and to one another It increases with speed
34
What is pressure drag?
Form/profile drag Drag force due to inertia of the fluid- the resistance it has to being pushed to the side Increases with speed Depends on turbulence and shape
35
What is induced drag?
Consequence of producing lift Decreases with speed Depends on the the wing angle
36
What is labriform swimming?
2 types- Drag-based pectoral fin swimming Lift based pectoral fin swimming
37
What is drag-based pectoral fin swimming?
Has a power stroke and a recovery stroke- like rowing
38
What is lift-based pectoral fin swimming?
Has an abduction, adduction, and refraction
39
Depth control by sharks
Sharks are denser than water, so use their pectoral fins to generate lift Some have metabolically inert squalene in their livers Cartilage is lighter than bone
40
Drag reduction strategies
Streamlined body shape | Reduce surface roughness
41
What do shark denticles do?
Prevent flow separation (vortex generation), so reduce drag
42
How many land invasions did invertebrates do and what were they?
2 Molluscs (snails) Arthropods (eurypterids- sea scorpions)
43
How many land invasions did vertebrates do and what were they?
1 | Stout finned fish- subcarangiform swimmer, streamlined body, gills, gas bladder
44
Why transition to land?
New food sources Avoid predators and competition O2 abundance
45
Problems faced on the land
Temperature regulation Water evaporation Air breathing Gamete desiccation Gravity- water provides buoyancy to support body and food Lift based propulsion not practical in air
46
What was the first arthropod onto land?
Eurypterids (sea scorpions)
47
Features of eurypterids
Large stout legs- capable of terrestrial locomotion | 6 legged and 8 legged walking
48
What is the earliest terrestrial gastropod and when from?
Maturipupa | From the Carboniferous
49
What was Eusthenopteron?
Genus of sarcopterygian (lobe-finned fish) From the Devonian Limb-like fins that may have helped to pull it through shallow lagoons
50
What digits are suited to walking?
Forward facing | Gives traction to substrate
51
What was Ichthyostega?
``` Land dweller in the Devonian Half amphibian, half lobe-finned fish Strenghtened pectoral and pelvic girdles Robust zygapophyses Webbed toes Dragged belly along ground ```
52
What are zygapophyses?
Notches that allow vertebrae to lock together | Strenghtens, so better for land
53
What had the first 5 digit limb found?
Pederpes Early Carniforous- 'Romer's gap' Forward facing feet 5 digits
54
What were primitive gaits like?
Evolved from lateral undulations in fish swimming- still used by amphibians and reptiles eg. salamanders Belly walkers
55
Forces on sprawling gait
Forces on the scapula, so has to be very robust
56
Forces on erect gait
Forces are also supported by the spine, so can have a smaller pelvis and scapula
57
3 types of posture + examples
Crouched- quail, rats Sprawling- iguana Upright- ostrich, deer
58
Ways of increasing locomotion speed
Get bigger Increase stride frequency Increase stride length
59
How to increase stride length
``` More upright posture Run on tips of toes Lengthen limbs Flex spine- eg. cheetah Increase distance travelled when feet are off the ground- eg. run instead of walk ```
60
Geometrically larger=
SA:V ratio decreases, so area to attach muscle decreases | Exoskeleton size limited
61
What are hydrostatic skeletons?
Mainly in aquatic invertebrates Water is an imcompressible fluid, so can't reduce its volume Provides resistance for the contraction of muscles to act against Some are reinforced with collagen to control and limit shape change
62
Locomotion in earth worms
Circular muscle contraction causes fluid to press on the longitudinal muscles Long muscles stretch, elongating worm Wave of contractions produces forward movement
63
Advantages of a hydrostatic skeleton
Some can take up O2 and water and excrete waste through the skin Eliminates need for separate transport systems, saving energy Skeletons are light compared to rigid skeletons, so less muscle mass is required to move them
64
Disadvantages of a hydrostatic skeleton
Little protection against desiccation | Restricted to aquatic environment unless very small
65
What are muscular hydrostats?
Constant volume of incompressible liquid Instead of single fluid filled cavity, 3D matrix of muscle Eg. elephant trunks, star nosed mole
66
Arthropod exoskeleton features
Chitinous | Covers entire body inc. eyes
67
Exoskeleton advantages
Protective layer | Helps prevent dessication
68
Exoskeleton disadvantages
Can't expand as animal grows- moult- 2hrs, vulnerable | Size constraints
69
Stress similarity in terrestrial locomotion
Stress increases as get larger Impossible to produce bones of size needed in a giant But only if geometrically similar- support with thicker bones
70
What are plantigrade species?
Place the full length of the foot on the ground with each stride Eg. humans, bears
71
What are digitigrade species?
Walk with most of the length of digits, but not soles of feet, in contact with ground Eg. dogs, birds
72
What are unguligrade species?
Walk on their tiptoes, often hooves | Eg. horses, antelope
73
What does flexing the spine while moving do?
Lengthens the stride
74
What is walking?
One leg is always on the ground Potential energy is dependent on height from the ground Inverted pendulum motion Potential energy to kinetic energy
75
What is running?
Aerial phase is present Kinetic energy and potential energy are converted to elastic energy Achilles tendon stores elastic energy, restores it
76
Advantages of bipedalism
Frees forelimbs for carrying/wings Eyes set higher, so can see further Reduces SA exposed to sun
77
Chimpanzee bipedalism
Small bums- unstable legs Can't extend knee-joints to straighten leg Small Achilles tendon
78
What is flight?
'Descending at more than 45 degrees from vertical (less than is falling)' 'Controlled aerial behaviour with/without obvious aerodynamic structures'
79
4 flight subdivisions
Parachuting Directed aerial descent Gliding Flapping flight
80
2 types of drag
Friction drag | Pressure drag
81
What is friction drag?
Depends on surface area in contact with the air
82
What is pressure drag?
Depends on the shape | Result of flow separation causing low pressure behind the object
83
What does parachuting require?
An air brake | Want to make as big a surface area as possible
84
What is controlled aerial descent?
Animals can use angular momentum | Or uneven air resistance (drag)
85
What is angular momentum?
Mass x speed x distance from pivot point Change one and the other change to compensate Allows uneven drag
86
What is uneven drag?
Can stick a limb out to change speed, direction etc | Can also generate some lift by spreading out limbs or laying flat
87
How do cats turn in the air?
Use angular momentum Spread hind limbs wide, pull in fore-limbs Turn front half quickly in one direction, hind legs move slowly in other direction Then do the opposite- fore-limbs wide, hind narrow Angular momentum of cats body is always 0
88
How do geckos always land on their feet?
Use their tail to right themselves in the air
89
Examples of vertebrate directed aerial descenders
Wallace's flying frog | Flying gecko
90
What is lift?
Air has to travel further over the top of the wing Produced in animals that glide Drag is also produced, so animal still falls
91
Examples of animals that glide
Sugar gliders Flying fish Flying lizards
92
What does flapping (powered) flight require?
Thrust | Produced by reversing the circulation sense of the vortices shed from the animal
93
4 groups of animals that have evolved flapping flight separately
Insects Pterosaurs Bats Birds
94
Insect adaptations for flight
Thin chitinous membrane wings | System of sclerotized veins
95
Pterosaur adaptations for flight
Elongated digit | Membrane wing
96
Bat adaptations for flight
Elongated digits | Membrane wing
97
Bird adaptations for flight
Feathered wing
98
Evolution of insect flight
Limited evidence | No transitional fossils found
99
Directed aerial control in ants
Only tree nesting species are capable of it But morphologically similar to ground species- can only rotate in air Gliding ants cannot glide at night Tree ants that glide onto leaf litter often killed by other ants/insects
100
Evolution of pterosaur flight
220-65mya | No transitional fossil forms (half-winged)
101
Pterosaur skeleton features
Pteroid bone that supports the propatagium Unique to pterosaurs Don't know orientation of bone
102
Wing membrane shapes in pterosaurs
Varied between different groups Not many fossilised membranes Membrane attachment sites vary Some may have been bird-like, some more bat-like
103
How did pterosaurs move on land?
Track-ways suggest they were quadrupedal | Could maybe take off from land?
104
Evolution of bat flight
Arboreal origin- phylogeny and membrane attachment suggest this But bats can take off from and move across the ground
105
Origin of bird flight theories
Wing-assisted incline running (WAIR)
106
What was wing-assisted incline running?
Jumping out of something high, or pouncing, ambushing prey from rocks Stage of chick development may mirror flight development
107
Anatomical evidence of flight capabilities in Archaeopteryx
Small sternum No keel No foramen triosseum (hole in the shoulder for flight tendon) Shoulder anatomy suggests dorsal elevation wasn't possible
108
Anatomical evidence of flight capabilities in Confuciusornis
Small sternum Shallow keel No forament triosseum Shoulder anatomy suggests dorsal elevation of the limb wasn't possible
109
What are the pivotal flight structure in birds?
Flight feathers (thin feathers are not capable of sustaining flight)
110
Vane asymmetry in Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis
Asymmetry of vanes similar to flightless modern birds

Animal Diversity (12 decks)

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