2 - Individual vulnerability to risk behaviour and addiction (L2, Castellanos-Ryan & Conrod, Meeus, Kreek)

Question 1

How can classical conditioning help us in understanding the development of addiction? (Q)

Answer 1

Certain situations or environments are associated with engagement in risk behavior. E.g. media advertisements about beer (or positive: about 0.0 beer).

Question 2

How can operant conditioning help us in understanding the development of addiction? (Q)

Answer 2

Increases risk taking by rewarding consequences (e.g. feeling happy, meeting new friends, peer status). Has an effect of your future behavior, can be a risk factor.

Question 3

What is the role of genes in the development of addiction? (Q)

Answer 3

You have a particular genetic vulnerability. This is the presence of certain genetic factors (genotype). The environment can trigger this genotype what can result in risk behavior or addiction.

Question 4

What are the individual vulnerabilities for risk behavior and addiction? (HC)

Answer 4

1. Genetic vulnerability
2. Personality as vulnerability
3. Psychosocial and psychiatric disorders as vulnerability
4. Negative life events as vulnerability

Question 5

How do individual vulnerabilities increase the risk of developing addictive behavior? (Q)

Answer 5

1. Genetic: presence of certain genetic factor, environment can trigger this genotype.
2. Personality: disinhibited (impulsivity, sensation seeking) and inhibited (anxiety, hopelessness).
3. Psychosocial and psychiatric disorders: externalising (ADHD, agressive behavior, conduct problems) and internalising (mood disorder, anxiety and panic disorder, ptss)
4. Negatieve life events: early life stress, chronic stressfull conditions, traumatic experiences

Question 6

What is the relationship between experimental and problematic risk behavior? (Q)

Answer 6

???

Question 7

What are the four learning theoretical models? (HC)

Answer 7

1. Classical conditioning - Pavlov
2. Law of effect - Thorndike
3. Operant conditioning - Skinner
4. Social learning/modelling - Bandura

Question 8

What is classical conditioning? (HC)

Answer 8

Learning through association. E.g.:
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = beer
- Unconditioned response (UR) = time to relax/feeling happy
- Conditioned stimulus (CS) (paired stimulus) = a bar

Question 9

What is Law of effect? (HC)

Answer 9

Actions that have a beneficial effect will be repeated in the same situation under the same conditions.
- E.g. A cat that is rewarded for certain behavior, will repeat this behavior in the same situation

Question 10

What is Operant conditioning? (HC)

Answer 10

Behavior is changed according to the consequences.
- Reinforcer:
o Positive: adding something “good” (chocolate)
o Negative: removing something “bad” (no homework)
- Punishment:
o Positive: adding something “bad” (spraying water)
o Negative: removing something “good” (no dessert)

Question 11

What is social learning/modelling? (HC)

Answer 11

• Combination of behavior and cognition
• We learn by observing others and the consequences of their choices

Question 12

How can Law of effect help us in understanding the development of addiction? (HC)

Answer 12

(Risky) behavior will be repeated when the consequences are beneficial. E.g. gaming is beneficial for you, so you will do it more often.

Question 13

How can Social Learning/Modeling help us in understanding the development of addiction? (HC)

Answer 13

• Modeling risk behavior of others
• Learning models have influenced current theories of addiction
• Learning models describe how habits and behavioral patterns develop that underlie and precede addictive behavior

Question 14

Definition Genetic vulnerability (HC)

Answer 14

Presence of certain genetic factors > genotype.

Question 15

What is the Diathesis stress model? And how does this connect with addiction? (HC)

Answer 15

The diathesis-stress model posits that psychological disorders result from an interaction between inherent vulnerability and environmental stressors. Genetic vulnerability is the genotype, stress is the enviroment (e.g. smoking).

Question 16

Can you think of an example of environmental direct/indirect effects of smoking? (HC)

Answer 16

Your parents give you the genes which determine if you’re vulnerable for smoking (if your parents have a low educational level, you’ll receive these genes, so they have a direct/indirect effect on your vulnerability for smoking). In low SES, smoking is more common because of the educational level.
- Genetic risk smoking -> smoking behavior = direct effect
- Educational level -> smoking behavior = indirect effect

Question 17

What two parts does the disinhibited domain consist of? (HC)

Answer 17

1. Impulsivity
2. Senstion seeking

Question 18

Definition Impulsivity (HC)

Answer 18

Lacking cognitive control over behavior (happens in the brain).
1. Acting without thinking
2. Impatience/delay of gratification
3. Inability to regulate responses

Question 19

Definition Sensation seeking (HC)

Answer 19

The need to look for challenges and incentives while taking risks (a.k.a. novelty seeking). Has an overlap with impulsivity; drive for experimentation and exploration.

Question 20

What are the results of the TRAILS longitudinal study? (HC)

Answer 20

• Age 11 poor control is more alcohol use at age 16. Largest effect for adolescents who are high in reward sensitivity.
• Age 11 poor control more cannabis use at age 16. Largest effect for those who are high in reward senstivity.

Question 21

What two parts does the inhibited domain consist of? (HC)

Answer 21

1. Anxiety
2. Hopelessness

Question 22

Definition Anxiety (HC)

Answer 22

The tendency withdrawn, perceiving (social) situations as threatening, having difficulties to remain calm and being hypersensitive to stress.

Question 23

Is an adolescent with anxiety more vulnerable for addicition? (HC)

Answer 23

Yes, but anxiety decreases the change for early onset of drinking.

Question 24

Vul in (HC). Externalising psychosocial and psychiatric disorder more common in …(1) domain. Internalising is more common in …(2) domain. And where are those related to?

Answer 24

1: disinhibited - often related to reward of sensitivity or lack of control
2: inhibited - often related to coping or self-medication)

Question 25

What are examples of early life stress, chronic stressful conditions and traumatic experiences? (HC)

Answer 25

Early life stress: neglect, stress during pregnancy
Chronic stressful conditions: poverty, illness
Traumatic experiences: abuse, divorce, ptsd

Question 26

Definition Self medication hypothesis (HC)

Answer 26

How negative feeling can occur as a result of something that’s happening to you. Substance use become medication to deal with your problems.

Question 27

Definition Diathesis-stress model/differential susceptibility (HC)

Answer 27

Negative life effect increases the stresslevels, particularly when you are vulnerable.

Question 28

Vul in (Kreek). Vulnerability to develop a drug addiction is influenced by a combination of …(1) and …(2) factors.

Answer 28

1: genetic
2: environmental

Question 29

What is the % of hertiability of genes in the vulnerability to addictive disease? (Kreek)

Answer 29

In twin studies: 30-60%

Question 30

Where are family-based linkage studies used for? (Kreek)

Answer 30

To identify genetic factors in personality traits and addiction.

Question 31

What is a family-based linkage study? (Kreek)

Answer 31

Investigates the transmission of genetic markers on specific genomic regions of interest and phenotypes in pedigrees consisting of two or more generations.

Question 32

What is an association study? (Kreek)

Answer 32

Asks whether a particular gene allele is more prevelant in patients, compared with control subjects, than would be expected by chance.

Question 33

Vul in (Kreek). One general approach for identifying specific genes involved in a …(1). Another strategy is to use …(2) which conduct genome-wide scans to identify chromosomal positions that may be associated with a specific disorder or addiction.

Answer 33

1: hypothesis-oriented selection
2: positional approaches

Question 34

What is essential for all studies of addiction genetics because poor or inadequate phenotypic assessments lead to incorrect results? (Kreek)

Answer 34

Rigorous phenotypic assessment

Question 35

What is the difference between impulsivity and risk taking? (Kreek)

Answer 35

Impulsivity is more about the lack of control and acting without thinking, whereas risk-taking involves a conscious decision to engage in uncertain or potentially harmful activities after considering the potential outcomes. While impulsive behavior can lead to risk-taking, not all risk-taking behaviors are impulsive; some are the result of careful consideration and evaluation of risks and rewards.

Question 36

Vul in (Kreek). Exposure to stress activates the …(1)

Answer 36

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)

Question 37

What does the HPA axis undergo as result of exposure to drugs of abuse? (Kreek)

Answer 37

Extensive plasticity: ability to adapt and change in response to various environmental factors and experiences throughout a person’s life.

Question 38

Kies (Kreek). Environmental factors influence the development of alcohol dependence in individuals with a relatively …(high/low) genetic risk.

Answer 38

high

Question 39

What does the dual systems model and maturational imbalance model assume? (Meeus)

Answer 39

Adolescent risk-taking results from the temporary imbalance between two neurobiological systems: subcortical socioemotional system and prefrontal cognitive control system.

Question 40

What is the subcortical socioemotional system? (Meeus)

Answer 40

This system is responsive to emotion, reward and novelty

Question 41

What is the prefrontal cognitive control system? (Meeus)

Answer 41

Guides impulse control, planning and decision making.

Question 42

What does the dual systems model predicts when you look at cognitive control and socioemotional reactivity? (Meeus)

Answer 42

Cognitive control will be more highly developed than socialemotional reactivity at the end of adolescence.

Question 43

What does the maturational imbalance model predicts when you look at cognitive control and socioemotional reactivity? (Meeus)

Answer 43

Assumes that both behavioural tendencies will be about as strong at the end of adolescence.

Question 44

Does the dual systems model and the maturational imbalance model offer an accurate account of the development of the (im)balance of cognitive control and socioemotional reactivity in adolescence? (Meeus)

Answer 44

No. However, some support was found for the dual systems model (impulse control became stronger than sensation seeking in late adolescence), and some support was found for the maturational imbalance model (impulse control became more balanced in late adolescence).

Question 45

Does imbalance goes together with risk taking? (Meeus)

Answer 45

Yes. Support was found in both models, imbalance (dominance of sensation seeking over impulse control) goes together with risk taking.

Question 46

What are the three limitations of Meeus’ research?

Answer 46

1. It cannot be claimed that imbalance of cognitive control and socioemotional reactivity causes risk taking.
2. The study did not include experimental of brain imaging measures.
3. The measures of impulse control and sensation seeking were very short.

Question 47

Within the inhibited domain, what personal factors are mostly associated with addictive behaviours? (Castellanos)

Answer 47

Negative emotionality, introversion, hopelessness
Neuroticism, anxiety, anxiety sensitivity

Question 48

Within the disinhibited domain, what personal factors are mostly associted with addictive behaviours? (Castellanos)

Answer 48

Impulsivity, disinhibition
Extraversion, sociability, sensation seeking

Question 49

What is an explanation of why studies doesn’t find the same results in personality and addicition processes? (Castellanos)

Answer 49

Differences could be attributed to the fact that the strength of associations between personality and addiction varies by developmental stage and by the different stages in the course of the disorder.

Question 50

In what two lower-order factors can the negative affect of neurotic traits can be subdivided (inhibited domain; Castellanos)

Answer 50

Low positive affect (hopelessness) and fear (anxiety sensitivity). They have specific relationships to particular aspects of substance use and misuse.

Question 51

Definition Hopelessness (Castellanos)

Answer 51

A set of negative expectations concearning self and future life, and as tendency to expect negative things to occur, that nothing will improve negative circumstances, or that highly desired outcomes will not occur.

Question 52

How is hopelessness linked to substance misuse? (Castellanos)

Answer 52

Linking hoplessness with internalizing problems, led to the hypothesis that hopeslessness is associated with particular susceptability to substance misuse patterns through a self-medication process to reduce painful experiences and memories.

Question 53

Definition Anxiety sensitivity (Castellanos)

Answer 53

Fear of anxiety-related physical sensations due to an unreaslistic expectation that they could lead to catastrophic consequences such as loss of physical or mental control.

Question 54

How is anxiety sensitivity linked to substance misuse? (Castellanos)

Answer 54

There are inconsistent findings. But the association between AS and self-report motivations for substance use that reflect self-medication of anxiety symptoms or drinking to cope with emotional distress.

Question 55

Is anxiety sensitivity a risk factor for adolescent substance use? (Castellanos)

Answer 55

No, it rather indicates a specific risk profile predicting who will use substances to cope with stressors that produce physiological arousal.

Question 56

Where is impulsivity associted with? (Castellanos)

Answer 56

Deficit in reflectiveness and planning, rapid decision-makng and action, and a failure to inhibit a behavior that is likely to result in negative consequences.

Question 57

Definition Sensation seeking (Castellanos)

Answer 57

Strong need for stimulation, a low tolerance to boredom, and a willingness to take risks for the sake of having novel and varied experiences.

Question 58

What hypothesis fits with this description: individuals report that they use substances to regulate or cope with negative affect and to forget about difficult situations (Castellanos)

Answer 58

Self-medication hypothesis

Question 59

Where is the negative affect regulation pathway associted with? (Castellanos)

Answer 59

Late onset, a greater tendency to engage in addictive behaviors in solitary context, and a predilection for alcohol, sedatives, and analgesics, as well as reporting lower enhancement motives for use.

Question 60

What does the pharmacological vulerability model of addiction proposes? (Castellanos)

Answer 60

Individuals are at risk for substance misuse because they are especially sensitive to the reinforcing effects of substances and are therefore more likely to use substances as they experience greater effects from the substance.

Question 61

What does the poor response inhibition pathway posits? (Castellanos)

Answer 61

Individuals with high levels of impulsivity are more inclined to engage in deviant behaviors in general.

Question 62

What are two models/theories that implicate impulsivity as key in the development of behavioural problems and substance misuse? (Castellanos)

Answer 62

Social deviance model & psychological dysregulation theory

Question 63

What are the characteristics of the poor response inhibiton pathway to addiction? (Castellanos)

Answer 63

Early onset, more severe levels of substance use, as well as undefined motives of substance use and a lack of specifity to substance or addictive behavior of choice.

Question 64

What does the reward pathway to addiction posits? (Castellanos)

Answer 64

Those individuals scoring high on sensation seeking or related traits, will engage in addictive behaviors motivated by their positive reinforcing properties or the enhance positive feelings or emotions.