2. Golden Years 1924-28

Question 1

How did Stresemann stabilise the currency in 1923?

Answer 1

-In August 1923, at the height of the hyperinflation crisis, the government of Cuno collapsed and was replaced by a new coalition led by Gustav Stresemann
-Stresemann’s coalition- the so called ‘great coalition’- was the first in the short history of the Weimar Republic to include parties from the left and right.
-Stresemann’s own party, the DVP, shared power with the centre party, the socialists and the DDP
-Stresemann, who was chancellor for a mere 103 days, took office at time when the Weimar Republic was in serious political and economic difficulty
-By the time he left office in November, the currency had been stabilised, inflation had been brought under control and attempts to overthrow the republic from both the left and right had ended in failure
-Stresemann’s priority was to bring inflation under control. This involved 3 key steps

Question 2

What were the economic developments made by Stresemann?

Answer 2

-End of passive resistance
-The issuing of a new currency
-Balancing the budget

Question 3

Why did Stresemann end passive resistance?

Answer 3

-Passive resistance against the occupation of the Ruhr was called off in September. This was a highly unpopular and risky move, which led to serious unrest and the attempted beer hall putsch in Munich.
-Stresemann calculated, however, that he had not alternative. Germany’s economy was beginning to grind to a halt and inflation was completely out of control
-Ending passive resistance, which meant that the government stopped paying workers who refused to work for the French, was an essential first step towards reducing government expenditure

Question 4

What happened with the issuing of a new currency?

Answer 4

In November 1923, a new currency called the rentenmark was introduced to replace the old and worthless Reichsmark. The new currency was exchanged for the old on a basis of one rentenmark for a trillion old marks
-Since Germany did not have sufficient gold reserves to back the new currency, it was supported by a mortgage on all industrial and agricultural land
-Once the new currency was successfully launched, the government kept tight control over the amount of money in circulation in order to prevent inflation reappearing
-The old inflated marks were gradually cashed in and, in August 1924, the Rentenmark became the Reichsmark, backed by German gold reserve, which had to be maintained at 30% of the value of the Reichsmarks in circulation
-Inflation ceased to be a problem and the value of the new currency was established home and abroad. All this happened under the direction of Hjalmar Schadt

Question 5

What happened with the balancing of the budget?

Answer 5

-Stresemann’s government cut expenditure and raised taxes. The salaries of government employees were cut, some 300,000 civil servants lost their jobs and taxes were raised for both individuals and companies
-As government debt began to fall, confidence was restored
-These changes made a considerable difference to the way that the German economy operated
-Well managed companies that were run prudently and were careful not to build up excessive debt continued to prosper
-Weaker companies that were heavily reliant on credit crumbled. The number of companies that went bankrupt in Germany rose from 233 in 1923 to over 6000 in 1924
-Moreover, those who had lost their savings in the collapse of the old currency did not gain anything from the introduction of a new currency

Question 6

What was the reparations issue?

Answer 6

-The stabilisation of Germany’s economy was as much dependant on settling the reparations dispute as it was on domestic issues
-In November 1923, Stresemann asked the Allies’ reparations committee to set up a committee of financial experts to address Germany’s repayment concerns
-The USA had a vested interest in getting Germany back to a position where reparations could be made to France, because much of this money was then passed on to the USA to repay loans

Question 7

How was the reparations issue fixed?

Answer 7

-The American banker Charles Dawes acted as the new committee’s chairman
-By the time the Dawes plan was finalised in April 1924, Stresemann’s government had fallen, but he remained as foreign secretary and took credit for much of what was achieved
-Although the Dawes plan confirmed the original figure of a total reparations payment of £6.6 billion (132,000 million gold marks), it made the payments manageable

Question 8

What did the Dawes plan recommend for repayments?

Answer 8

-The amount paid each year by Germany should be reduced until 1929, when the situation would be reappraised. It proposed that Germany should re start reparations by paying 1000 million marks (a fraction of what had been expected before) and that this sum should be raised by annual increments over 5 years by 2500 million marks per year. After this, the sum paid should be related to Germany industrial performance
-Germany should receive a large loan of 800 million marks from the USA to help get the plan started and allow for heavy investment in German infrastructure

Question 9

Why was there a debate in the Reichstag about the Dawes plan?

Answer 9

-Stresemann himself did not actually believe in the plan, privately referring to it as ‘no more than an economic armistice’, but he agreed to it as a way of securing foreign loans.
-The so-called ‘national opposition’ (mainly the DNVP, but also smaller right wing groups like the Nazi movement) bitterly attacked this policy of compromise, since they believed Germany should defy the unjust Versailles Treaty and refuse to pay reparations altogether
-However, the Dawes plan was eventually agreed and accepted by both Germany and the allies in July 1924

Question 10

What were the benefits of the Dawes plan to Germany?

Answer 10

-The allies accepted that Germany’s problems with the payment of reparations were real
-Loans were granted, with which new machinery, factories, houses and jobs could be provided and the German economy rebuilt
-The French gradually left the Ruhr during 1924-25, once it became clear that Germany was going to restart paying reparations and the occupation could no longer be justified. Such measures contributed to German optimism that their country was once again it’s own master

Question 11

What was the extent of economic recovery in industry generally?

Answer 11

-By 1925, Germany appeared more stable and prosperous. The combination of the new currency, the Dawes plan and Schacht’s work at the Reichsbank (where interest rates were kept high to attract foreign investment), helped improve Germany’s situation enormously
-American loans helped stimulate the economy.
-Industrial output grew after 1924 but did not reach 1913 levels until 1929. The extent of this boom should not be exaggerated. Growth rates were unsteady.
-The years 1924-25 and 1927 were good years, but the economy shrank in 1928 and 1929. Investment in new machinery and factories was falling by 1929

Question 12

What was the impact on different industries of the Dawes plan?

Answer 12

-Advances were made in the chemical industry, such as the large scale production of artificial fertilisers. The car and aeroplane industries also developed, although cars were still to expensive for the average German
-The inflation rate was close to zero and living standards rose as wages began to increase from 1924. Loans helped to finance the building of houses, schools, municipal buildings, road and public works
-Massive population growth had created an acute housing shortage in Germany by the early twentieth century, and the overcrowding and insanitary conditions of working class city accommodation had been linked to political instability
-Consequently, state initiatives to provide affordable homes were of great importance for future stability.
-In 1925, 178,930 dwellings were built- over 70,000 more than in the previous year- and, in 1926, there were to be 205,793 more new homes
-Money was spent on welfare payments and health improvements and, in 1924, new schemes of relief were launched

Question 13

What happened to the strikes in German industry in the years after the Dawes plan?

Answer 13

-The number of strikes in German industry declined in these years, partly because a new system of compulsory arbitration for settling industrial disputes was issued.
-However, employers felt that this system was biased in favour of the unions and resented the state’s interference in their affairs
-The Weimar Republic had already set a maximum of 8 hours for a working day and had given trade unions the right to be part of work councils in factories and mines

Question 14

What happened in 1928 in the iron and steel industry?

Answer 14

-A dispute over wages in the Ruhr resulted in the arbitrator granting a small wage increase to the workers.
-The employers then refused to pay the increase and locked out the workers for 4 weeks.
-In this dispute the workers were backed by the government and paid by the state. There were undoubtably improvements in living standards for ordinary German workers, especially those who were backed by powerful trade unions
-They benefited from increases in the real value of wages in each year after 1924
-In 1927, real wages increased by 9% and, in 1928, they rose by a further 12%

Question 15

What were the limits to the economic recovery?

Answer 15

-In a speech given shortly before his death in 1929, Gustav Stresemann warned, ‘the economic position is only flourishing on the surface. Germany is dancing on a volcano. If the short term loans are called in, a large section of our economy would collapse’
-Unemployment was a continuing problem in these years. By the end of 1925, unemployment had reached 1 million; by March 1926, it was over 3 million, although it did fall after that
-This was due partly to there being more people seeking work, partly to public spending cuts, but also to companies reducing their workforces income order to make efficiency savings
-The mining companies reduced their workforces by 136,000 between 1922 and 1925, and reduced them by another 56,000 between 1925 and 1929

Question 16

Who did the Weimar ‘economic miracle’ not benefit?

Answer 16

-The mittlestand, the professional middle classes, gained very little in this so-called ‘golden age’
-Bankrupted by the hyperinflation of 1923, middle-class managers, clerks and bureaucrats did not benefit fully from improved economic climate
-White collar workers did not enjoy the wage rises of the industrial sector
-By the late 1920’s, industrial sector wages had drawn level with those of the middle class and in some cases exceeded them

Question 17

What was the extent of economic recovery on agriculture?

Answer 17

-Farmers gained very little benefit from the economic recovery of these years. A worldwide agricultural depression kept food prices low and few farmers were able to make a profit on their land.
-During the inflation of the early 1920s, large landowners and farmers borrowed money to buy new machinery and improve their farms
-Smaller peasant farmers, however, tended to hoard money and their savings were wiped out by inflation
-After 1923, the government made it easier for farmers to borrow money, but this made matters worse. Farmers became saddled with debt at a time when prices were falling and they could not, therefore, keep up the repayments
-The increased taxes introduced to pay for welfare benefits of the unemployed and sick were regarded as an unfair burden on farmers’ plight by introducing high import tariffs on food products, import controls and subsidies to farmers, but these measures did not go far enough
-The plight of German farmers worsened due to a global grain surplus and price slump in 1925 and 1926. By the late 1920s, there was an increase in bankruptcies amongst farmers and many of them lost their land as the banks demanded repayments of loans
-In 1928, farmers initiated a series of small scale riots known as ‘farmers revenge’- in protest against foreclosures and low market prices
-By 1929, German agricultural production was at less than three quarters of it’s pre war levels

Question 18

What were the key events in foreign policy 1924-30?

Answer 18

1924- Dawes plan
1925- Locarno pact
1926- Germany admitted to the League of Nations treaty of Berlin with the USSR allied forces withdraw from zone 1 of the Rhineland
1929- Young plan and allied withdrawal from zone 2 of the Rhineland
1930- Allied withdrawal from zone 3 of the Rhineland

Question 19

What was agreed by all after 1919?

Answer 19

-That the treaty of Versailles was an unjust and dictated peace treaty, which denied Germany it’s rightful place among the great powers of Europe
-It also placed millions of Germans outside the territory of the Republic. Whichever government was in power during the years 1919-33, the foreign policy of the Weimar Republic was always based on one clear and simple aim- to revise the terms of the treaty of Versailles
-There were however, deep divisions between the parties on how this best be achieved
-The nationalist right consistently argued that Germany should reject the treaty and rebuild it’s military strength in preparation for a time when the country could regain lost territory and become a fully independent great power once again

Question 20

What was Stresemann’s approach to revising the treaty of Versailles?

Answer 20

-It was a more pragmatic approach, known as the policy of fulfilment.
-This involved Germany cooperating with France, Great Britain, the USA and Italy on issues such as reparations payments and removing allied occupation forces from German territory
-Such cooperation, it was believed, would lead to more revision of the treaty than a confrontational approach
-Stresemann understood that French suspicion of Germany was the biggest obstacle in the way of securing revision in the treaty of Versailles and, therefore, he concentrated on finding ways to reassure France of Germany’s peaceful intentions
-This policy bore fruit in the Locarno pact of 1925

Question 21

What was the Locarno pact, 1925?

Answer 21

-In October 1925, the Western European powers met, at Germany’s suggestion, at a conference in the Swiss city of Locarno. Stresemann was anxious to restore Germany’s position internationally and avoid any hostile alliance between Britain and France, particularly as the latter began to feel threatened by Germany’s industrial recovery
-France was suspicious of the move, but eventually agreed to attend, along with the USA, Britain and Italy, but not Russia
-The discussions led to the Rhineland pact and Arbitration treaties, usually known collectively as the Locarno pact, although they were finally signed in London on 1st December 1925

Question 22

What was agreed under the Rhineland Pact?

Answer 22

-Germany, France and Belgium promised to respect the Western frontier, as drawn up at Versailles in 1919. This frontier was to be regarded as fixed and internationally guaranteed
-Germany agreed to keep it’s troops out of the Rhineland, as demanded at Versailles
-Britain and Italy promised to aid Germany, France or Belgium if any of these countries attacked it’s neighbours

Question 23

What was agreed under the arbitration treaties?

Answer 23

-Germany agreed with France, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia that any dispute between them should be settled by a conciliation committee to mediate discussions
-France signed treaties of ‘mutual guarantee’ with Poland and Czechoslovakia. These said that France would make sure Germany did not break the agreement above

Question 24

What was also agreed in the Locarno pact?

Answer 24

-That any conflicts regarding the Western borders should be referred to the League of nation’s.
-In addition, France would not be permitted to cross into Germany should there be any dispute between Germany Poland or Czechoslovakia

Question 25

Why was the Lacarno pact praised?

Answer 25

-The Lacarno pact was hailed as a major triumph in many quarters. It was the first time that Germany had recognised the Western border imposed at Versailles and accepted the loss of Alsace Lorraine to France and Eupen Malmedy to Belgium -For the French, there was a guarantee of support from the British should there ever be another German attack, while for the Germans, it meant the 1923 occupation of the Ruhr could never be repeated -The French agreed to withdraw the forces occupying the Rhineland and, although this was initially postponed in January 1925 because of Germany’s refusal to comply with the disarmament obligations obliged at Versailles, it was achieved over the next 5 years and without Stresemann giving any assurances that Germany would disarm. -The city of cologne, for example, was evacuated by the French in 1926

Question 26

What were some of the drawbacks of the Lacarno pact?

Answer 26

-Although the arbitration treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia offered some guarantees, the Eastern borders were not recognised in the same way. -For Germany, this left open the possibility of further revision of the Eastern borders at some stage in the future

Question 27

What were Stresemann’s thoughts on Locarno?

Answer 27

-He regarded Locarno as his greatest achievement- and he was rewarded by Germany’s acceptance into the league of nation’s as a permanent member of the council and the Nobel peace prize in 1926 -Stresemann could take pride in the fact that he had established Germany’s position as an equal partner in diplomatic negotiations with the 3 major western powers- France, Britain and the USA -Strategically, he had achieved a good deal with very little loss to Germany -The German nationalist right, however, attacked Stresemann for appeasing the allies and giving too much away

Question 28

What were the relations with the USSR like for Germany?

Answer 28

-After the revolutions of 1917 in Russia and 1918 in Germany, the two former enemies took very different political paths. -Russia, later (1922) the USSR, became the world’s first communist state, in which the rights of the individual were subordinated to those of the state -Germany adopted a democratic system of government, which guaranteed individual freedom -Although there was a large communist party, which campaigned for close links with the USSR, most Germans were opposed to the communist political system

Question 29

What were the similarities in the post war situation of Germany and the USSR?

Answer 29

-Both countries had been defeated in the war and had suffered from punitive peace treaties -Both counties felt that existence of an independent Poland, supported by French guarantees, was a threat to their security. Poland also contained large German and Russian minorities -Both Germany and Russia/USSR were treated as ‘outcast’ nations by the victorious powers and were not allowed to join the League of Nations

Question 30

What was the treaty of Rapallo?

Answer 30

-In April 1922 Walther Rathenau negotiated the treaty of Rapallo between Germany and the USSR

Question 31

What were the terms of the treaty of Rapallo?

Answer 31

-Germany and Russia resumed trade and economic cooperation -Diplomatic relations between the 2 countries were restored -All outstanding claims for compensation for war damage were dropped -Germany was allowed to développer new weapons and train pilots in Russia, away from the scrutiny of the allied powers

Question 32

What was the significance of the treaty of Rapallo?

Answer 32

-Although the treaty didn’t specify cooperation between Germany and Russia against Poland, this was clearly implied in the existence of the treaty -For Germany, therefore, the treaty of Rapallo was an important but symbolic step away from it’s post war isolation -However the allies, particularly France, were angered by this treaty, which showed Germany’s intention to get around the disarmament terms of treaty of Versailles and it’s refusal to accept it’s eastern frontier with Poland

Question 33

What was the treaty of Berlin?

Answer 33

-In April 1926, Germany and the USSR renewed their earlier treaty in the treaty of Berlin. This added very little to the original treaty, except for the agreement that Germany would remain neutral if the USSR were to be involved in a war, as long as the USSR was not the aggressor -This treaty was signed a year after the Lacarno pact and showed that, despite his agreement to guarantee Germany’s western frontiers, Stresemann had not abandoned his desire to secure a revision of Germany’s eastern frontiers -In order to achieve this, a close friendship with the USSR was vital because the USSR would resist any border changes it didn’t agree with

Question 34

What was the Kellogg-Briand pact?

Answer 34

-In 1928, Germany also signed the Kellogg-Briand pact with France and the USA, Frank Kellogg, the American Secretary of State, the Aristide Briand, the foreign minister of France, drew up an international agreement under which states would agree voluntarily to renounce the use of offensive wars to resolve disputes -Germany was one of the the first states to sign, and was followed by many other countries. -The pact had symbolic importance as an international agreement to avoid war, but its lack of any enforcement mechanism limited it’s effectiveness

Question 35

What was the end of allied occupation?

Answer 35

-The removal of foreign forces from German soil was an aim shared by Germans of all parties. Stresemann’s policy of fulfilment secured this objective by 1930 -The French, concerned for their own security and suspicious of Germany’s willingness to comply with the treaty of Versailles, were the most reluctant of all the allied powers to withdraw occupying forces -The withdrawal of forces was therefore, a step by step process, which involved both sides -After the Dawes plan of 1924 and the Locarno pact of 1925 provided evidence of German willingness to cooperate with the allies, occupation forces were withdrawn from zone 1 of the Rhineland in 1926 -The allies also withdrew the IMCC from Germany in the same year -Further progress, however, was dependant on a final settlement of the reparations issue -Once the young plan had been agreed by Germany in 1929, the way was clear for the withdrawl of the remaining allied forces -They were withdrawn from zone 2 in 1929 and from zone 3 in 1930, 5 years ahead of the schedule laid down in the treaty of Versailles -Although Stresemann had died in 1929 before this process was completed, this success was largely due to his policies

Question 36

What did social reforms between 1924-27 include?

Answer 36

1924: The public assistance system, which provided help to the poor and destitute, was modernised 1925: The state accident insurance system, introduced by Bismarck to help those injuries at work, was extended to cover those suffering from occupational diseases 1927: A national unemployment insurance system was introduced to provide benefits for the unemployed, financed by contributions from workers and employers

Question 37

How did the social welfare reforms between 1924-27 do for Germans?

Answer 37

-It was an impressive list of reforms, but, for many Germans, the welfare system promised more than it delivered. It was also very expensive. -In 1926, the state was supporting about 800,000 disabled war veterans, 360,000 war widows and over 900,000 war orphans. This was in addition to old age pensions and, after 1927, the cost of unemployment benefits -The welfare system also needed a large and expensive bureaucracy to administer it. Taxes were increased after 1924, but there was no limit to how much the better off were prepared to shoulder the burden of welfare expenditure -The result was that those administering benefits at a local level used many devices to keep expenditure down. Means tests were tightened up, snoopers were used to check that claimants weren’t cheating the system and there were increasing delays in paying benefits -Those in need of support, including large numbers of war veterans and their families, felt they were being humiliated and insulted by the welfare system, undermining their support for the Weimar Republic

Question 38

What were the living standards and lifestyles like in Germany in 1924-28?

Answer 38

-The living standards of millions of Germans undoubtedly improved during the years 1924-28. Those in work, particularly those represented by powerful trade unions, were able to maintain their living standards by negotiating wage increases. -Those dependant on welfare benefits were less well off, and undoubtedly suffered some hardships, but they were prevented from falling into abject poverty by the welfare system -Business owners and their salaried employees benefited from the improved trading position for German companies at this time. There were, however, many exceptions to this rule. Those who had lost their savings during the hyperinflation of 1923 were unable to regain the comfortable lifestyles they had once enjoyed -Farmers suffered from poor trading conditions and low prices, and their incomes were falling. The air of confidence that was exuded in cities such as Berlin was not apparent across the whole country -Social and cultural changes in Weimar Germany affected different groups in different ways

Question 39

What were the ‘new women’ in Weimar Germany?

Answer 39

There was much talk in Weimar Germany about the ‘new woman’, who symbolised the way women’s lives had changed since the end of the war. She was portrayed as being free, independent, sexually liberated and increasingly visible in public life

Question 40

What opportunities were women given in the years between 1924-28?

Answer 40

-The Weimar Constitution had given women equality with men in voting rights and in access to education. It had also given women equal opportunities in civil service appointments and the right to equal pay -This coincided with a major change in the gender balance of the population as a result of the war. Over 2 million Germans had been killed in the war, so there was fewer opportunities for women to follow the conventional path of marriage and children rearing to economic security -The war had also brought more women into paid employment to replace the men who had fought -Therefore many young German women in the 1920s had expectations about their lives which were very different from those of their mothers and that there were greater opportunities to fulfil those expectations

Question 41

What was the extent of change on the position of women in 1924-28?

Answer 41

-The extent of change shouldn’t be exaggerated. Moreover, not all German citizens approved of the changes- not even all women. Although the constitution gave women new legal and civil rights, the much more traditional civil code of 1896 remained in force. -Among other things, this code laid down that, in a marriage, the husband had the right to decide on all matters concerning family life, including whether his wife should undertake paid employment -The most popular women’s group in the 1920s was the league of German women (BDF), which had 900,000 members. -Far from supporting the ‘new women’, the BDF promoted traditional family values and maternal responsibilities -This was echoed by the more conservative political parties and by the churches, which were alarmed by changes they considered to be a threat to the family, -In many ways, therefore, the concept of the ‘new women’ was more of a cultivated myth than a social reality for the majority of German women

Question 42

What was the myth of the ‘new women’ in employment?

Answer 42

-The constitution gave women greater equality in employment rights -By 1925, 36% of the German workforce were women -By 1933, there were 100,000 women teachers and 3000 women doctors

Question 43

What was the reality about women in employment?

Answer 43

-The ‘demobilisation’ laws after the war required women to leave their jobs so that ex soldiers could find employment -In many occupations, women were required to give up their employment when they married -Women were paid much less than men doing equivalent work -Married women who continued to have paid jobs were attacked as ‘double earners’ and blamed for male unemployment. There were campaigns in the press and by conservative parties for the dismissal of married women workers

Question 44

What was the myth of the ‘new women’ with sexual freedom?

Answer 44

-Birth control became more widely available and the birth rate declined -Divorce rates increased -There was a rise in the number of abortions; by 1930, there was an estimated 1 million abortions a year

Question 45

What was the reality of women with sexual freedom?

Answer 45

-Abortion was a criminal offence and would often be performed by unqualified people. In 1930, there were an estimated 10-12,000 deaths each year from abortions -The decline in the birth rate was attacked by the conservative press and politicians as a ‘birth strike’ that threatened the health of the nation and the continued existence of the race -Catholic and Protestant churches were vigorously opposed to birth control, divorce and abortion. Many German women were committed members of church congregations

Question 46

What was the myth of the ‘new women’ in politics and public life?

Answer 46

-Women gained equal voting rights and the right to be Reichstag deputies in the Weimar constitution -In 1919, 41 women were elected to the Reichstag; the number of women deputies fell in subsequent elections but the German Reichstag had a higher proportion of female deputies than the British House of Commons -Women were also very active in local government at state and city level

Question 47

What was the reality of women politics and public life?

Answer 47

-There were no female representitives in the Reichsrat -No women became a cabinet member during the Weimar Republic -No political party has a female leader in the Weimar years -Only the communists (KPD) made gender equality a key element in it’s programme but it was the least appealing party to the new female electorate -The party that gained the most female suffrage was the catholic centre party. In protestant areas, the conservative DNVP and the DVP appealed most to women voters. None of these parties gave any support to feminist issues

Question 48

Who were 4 key women politicians in Weimar Germany?

Answer 48

-Clara Zetkin -Marie Juchacz -Marianne Weber -Paula Müller-Otfried

Question 49

Who was Clara Zetkin?

Answer 49

She was a KPD member of the Reichstag from 1920-33. She had been active in the SPD before 1914 and was a leading campaigner for women’s rights, having organised the first international women’s day in 1911. She was also a close friend of Rosa Luxembourg. Clara blamed capitalism for reducing women to the status of breeders and homebuilders, and believed women would only be truly liberated by a socialist revolution

Question 50

Who was Marie Juchacz?

Answer 50

-She was a long standing member of the SPD and elected to the National Assembly in 1919. -She was the first woman to make a speech in any legislative body in Germany. She served as a Reichstag deputy for the SPD until 1933 -Marie came from a poor, rural background and left school at 14 to earn money for her family. She had been introduced to politics by her older brother, and joined the SPD in 1908, when she became one of the first female party members

Question 51

What was the position of young people in the years between 1924-28?

Answer 51

-Young people in Weimar Germany were breaking free of the constraints of family, school and religion and turning increasingly to a life of crime and anti social behaviour -Those children, mostly from working class families, who did not attend the highly selective Gymnasium schools, were supposed to leave school at 14 and begin an apprenticeship or employment -In the Weimar years, however, there were fewer apprenticeships and more youth unemployment. Young people suffered disproportionately from the rise in unemployment after 1924 -In 1925-26, 17% of the unemployed were in the 14-21 age groups -This was partly because there had been a baby boom between 1900 and 1910, so many more young people were seeking employment at a time when employers were reducing their workforces -The benefits system provided some help for young people and day centres were established to help youths acquire the employment opportunity. The result was that many young, working class Germans living in big cities joined gangs to fine the comradeship, mutual support and sense of adventure that was otherwise lacking in their lives

Question 52

What were the youth ‘cliques’ in Hamburg?

Answer 52

-Youth ‘cliques’ were prévenant in the working class districts of large German cities. In Hamburg, there were cliques with such names as Farmers’ Fear, Red apaches, death deniers, Tartar’s blood and Eagle’s claw. -The names reflected the importance of projecting an image of physical toughness, agressive masculinity and anti social attitudes. -Each group was associated with a particular district of the city -The cliques often used taverns as their meeting places because alcohol played an important part in their sub culture. Prospective recruits were required to undertake an initiation test, such a stealing or vandalism, to demonstrate their willingness to break the law. -Each group had their own uniform and flag

Question 53

What was education like in the years between 1924-28?

Answer 53

-Germany prided itself on having one of the best state education systems in Europe. It had been developed in Prussia and then extended to the rest of Germany after 1871 -Alongside the gymnasiums for those aiming at university, there were realschile, which provided 6 years of schooling for children who would go onto apprenticeships -Although there were very few elite private schools in Germany, the state education system was nevertheless divided along class lines, since the majority of those at gymnasiums were drawn from the middle and upper classes -The system was also divided along religious lines, since the protestant and Catholic Churches had a powerful influence over religious education

Question 54

What was the aim of education reformers?

Answer 54

-Education reformers in the Weimar Republic aimed to break down these divides and provide a comprehensive, non sectarian education that would be free to all pupils. They were only partially successful in their efforts -The main educational reform of the Weimar period was the introduction of elementary schools, which all children would attend for the first four years of education -Those who did not then pass the entrance exam for a gymnasium would be able to continue at elementary school for a further 4 years -The reformers did not, however, succeed in their aim of removing the influence of the churches from schools -Both the catholic and the protestant churches vigorously and successfully defended their right to promote religious teachings through the state education system, supported by their respective political parties

Question 55

What were the 3 main types of youth groups?

Answer 55

-Wandervogel -Church youth groups -Political youth groups

Question 56

What were the Wandervogel?

Answer 56

-The first Wandervogel group, or ‘wandering birds’, was set up in 1896 by a Berlin schoolteacher. The movement quickly spread and groups consisted of mainly middle class boys. Although the Wandervogel were non political they were highly nationalistic, with a very romanticised view of Germany’s past -They hated industrialisation and big cities, and much of their time was spent hiking in the forests, swimming in lakes and rivers, and sleeping under canvas -In many ways, therefore, they rejected middle class social conventions and sought the freedom of wild spaces -Some adopted a more unconventional lifestyle by practising nudism and vegetarianism

Question 57

What were the church youth groups?

Answer 57

-Both the Catholic and Protestant churches had youth groups. The Catholics had many different groups aimed at different sections of young people, e.g. New Germany, which was founded in 1919, and aimed at middle class youths -The Protestants did not give youth work as high a priority and their groups had far fewer members -In both religions, the task of the youth groups were to promote religious observance and instil respect for the church, family and school

Question 58

What were the political youth groups?

Answer 58

All of the main political parties had their youth sections e.g. -The social Democratic youth movement was founded in 1925. It had the most members of any political youth groups in the Weimar period -The young communist league was founded in 1925 for the children of KPD members -The Bismarck youth, linked to the DNVP, was founded in 1922 and reached a membership of 42,000 by 1928. Its strongest appeal was among middle and upper class youth in protestant areas, but it also had a strong working class following in Britain -The Hitler youth was linked to the Nazi party. It’s growth was slow in the 1920s, reaching a membership of only about 13,000 in 1929

Question 59

What was Germany like for Jews between 1924 and 1928?

Answer 59

-There were more than half a million Jews living in Germany under the Weimar Republic. 80% of Jews in Germany (400,000) lived in cities and were well educated -Many of them felt much more German than Jewish and were intensely patriotic. Many believed in assimilation- keeping their ethnic and cultural identity but becoming fully integrated and accepted in mainstream German society -The achievements of German Jews under the Weimar Republic were remarkable. Jews represented only 1% of the total population, but they achieved a degree of influence out of all proportion to their numbers -German Jews achieved prominence in politics and the press, in business and banking, in the universities and in almost all aspects of Weimar culture -Jews had huge influence in the publishing of books and newspapers, Jewish musicians were at the forefront of musical life. Jewish producers and directors dominated theatre and the new medium of cinema

Question 60

What was it like for Jews in politics and press in 1924-28?

Answer 60

-German Jews were already well established in the world of politics before 1914. Jewish publishing firms had a powerful influence in the media, with 2 Jewish run newspapers in particular, the Berliner Tageblatt and the Frankfurter Zeitung, promoting liberal political views -Theodor Wolff, editor of Berliner Tageblatt, was the driving force behind the moderate Liberal DDP and Walter Rathenau, who became foreign minister in 1922, was also a leading member of the DDP -Jews were also prominent in the SPD and KPD -Rosa Luxemburg, Hugo Haase and Kurt Eisner, the leader of the revolution in Bavaria in November 1918, all came from Jewish backgrounds

Question 61

What were Jews like in industry, commerce and professions?

Answer 61

-German Jews achieved considerable wealth and influence in industry and commerce, although the extent of this influence was massively exaggerated by anti Jewish propaganda, both at the time and afterwards -For example the Rathenau family controlled the huge electrical engineering firm AEG until 1927 -Jewish firms dominated coal mining, steelworks and the chemical industry in Silesia, but had very little importance in the Western industrial areas of the Rhineland or the Ruhr

Question 62

What was life like for Jewish banking families?

Answer 62

-Jewish banking families, such as the Rothschilds, Mendelssohns and Bleichroders, owned about 50% of private banks. Jewish directors also managed several major public banks -To make such a list of Jewish banking interests can be misleading, however; in the 1920s, the role of Jews in banking was actually declining -Banks owned by Jews made up about 18% of the banking sector in Germany, a considerably smaller proportion than in the years before 1914

Question 63

What were Jews like in Retailing?

Answer 63

Jews were particularly active and successful in retailing. They owned about half of the firms involved in the cloth trade

Question 64

What were Jews like in professions between 1924-28?

Answer 64

-Jews were immensely successful in the professions, especially law and medicine, making up 6% of the lawyers and 11% of doctors in Germany -There were especially high numbers in Berlin; more than half of the doctors there in 1930 were Jewish and of 3400 lawyers, 1835 were Jews

Question 65

What were Jews like academically between 1924-28?

Answer 65

-Jews had a significant impact on the academic life of Germany. Of the 38 Nobel prizes awarded to young people working in Germany up to 1938, 9 were awarded to Jews -Germany was a world leader in the physical sciences, not least because of Albert Einstein, who revolutionised theoretical physics with his work on the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics

Question 66

What was the extent of assimilation in 1924-28?

Answer 66

-The vast majority of German Jews wished to assimilate -In language, dress and lifestyle, thousands of Jews looked and acted like other Germans -Many had married non Jewish spouses, given up religious observance or converted to Christianity. By the late 1920s, the process of assimilation was far advanced -The chief factor limiting the degree of Jewish integration into German society, however, was the reluctance of many Germans to stop identifying Jews as somehow alien -There was still a significant gap between wanting to be completely assimilated and feeling the security of being completely accepted

Question 67

What was anti semitism like between 1924 and 1928?

Answer 67

-In the difficult early years of the Weimar Republic from 1918 to 1924, there was a backlash against the perceived threat of Jewish Bolshevism, as seen in events such as the Spartacus uprising in Berlin and in the breakaway regime of Kurt Eisner in Munich -Anti semitism was part of the violent nationalism behind right wing movements such as the Freikorps and the NSDAP formed in 1920 -There was also a surge of hostility against Jewish financiers at the time of the hyperinflation crisis in 1923 -Between 1924 and 1930, however, as Weimar Germany entered it’s ‘Golden age’ of economic recovery and political stability, anti semitism was pushed to the fringes of public and political life -There was still fierce opposition to perceived Jewish influence, however, with frequent accusations of corruption and exploitation by Jewish bankers and businessmen

Question 68

What was the Barmat scandal of 1925?

Answer 68

-Some scandals in the later 1920s provided ammunition for anti semitic attacks. The most sensational was the Barmat scandal of 1925. The Barmat brothers, were Jewish businessmen who had emigrated from Galicia in Poland just after the war -After a high profile court case, they were convicted of having bribed public officials to obtain loans from the Prussian state bank and the national post office -Julius and Salomon were eventually sentenced to 11 months in jail

Question 69

What were the developments in Berlin’s nightclubs between 1924 and 1928?

Answer 69

-The greater cultural and personal freedom that was a feature of the Weimar Republic was epitomised in the vibrant nightlife of Berlin in the 1920s, especially in the more prosperous years after 1924 -Berlin nightclubs became renowned for their cabarets in which nudity featured strongly -One such club, the Eldorado, was described by a German composer, Friedrich Hollaender, as a ‘supermarket of eroticism’ -Gay men, lesbians and transvestites, who before 1918 were forced to conceal their sexuality, now felt free to display it openly -American Jazz music, much of it played by black American musicians, became popular. Many of the comedians performing in the clubs attacked politicians and authoritarian attitudes -Many older, more traditionally minded Germans regarded the Berlin nightclub scene with horror and contempt -They hated the influence of the USA on German cultural life and attacked the Weimar Republic for replacing cencorship. They felt that order and discipline had been destroyed by the revolution of 1918 and that German society was becoming morally degenerate

Question 70

What were the developments in art between 1924-28?

Answer 70

-The predominant movement in German art at this time was expressionism -It originated in Germany in the early twentieth century and was associated with artists such as Kandinsky, George Grosz, Frank Marc and Ernst Ludwig Kitchener -Expressionist painters believed that their works should express meaning or emotion rather than physical reality, hence their paintings were abstract in style and vivid in colour

Question 71

What were the developments in music between 1924-28?

Answer 71

-Expressionism also influenced German classical composers in this period -Among the most innovative were Hindemith and Arnold Schoenberg -Schoenberg attempted to convey powerful emotions in his music but avoided traditional forms of beauty -He was very much associated with ‘atonal’ music, which lacks a key, and sounds harsh and lacking in harmony to traditionalists

Question 72

What were the developments in literature between 1924-28?

Answer 72

-Expressionism was also a key influence on German literature of the period. Novelists and poets adopted a free form of writing in which they focused on a character’s internal mental state rather than on the external social reality -A common theme in German expressionist literature was revolt against parental authority -The leading German writer of the period was Thomas Mann -He was awarded the Nobel prize for literature in 1929 -Unlike many German intellectuals, he was a staunch supporter of the Weimar Republic and decided to live in Switzerland after the Nazis came to power in 1933

Question 73

What were the developments in Architecture between 1924-28?

Answer 73

-The founding of the Bauhaus at Dessau by William Gropius in 1919 was a key event in the development of modernist art in Germany. Although primarily an architectural school, the Bauhaus was also a school of art, design and photography - It’s students were encouraged to break down the barriers between art and technology by incorporating new materials such as steel, concrete and glass into their designs -Students were taught to make the function of an object or building into the key element of their designs, stripping away superfluous ornamentation

Question 74

What were the developments in theatre between 1924-28?

Answer 74

-Many German dramatists incorporated expressionist ideas into their productions. Sets were stark and plays relied on abstraction and symbolism to convey their message -Much of experimental theatre in Weimar Germany was explicitly political, attacking capitalism, nationalism and war -Bertolt Brecht and Kurt Weill developed a new form of music theatre that came to symbolise Weimar Berlin, above all the Threepenny Opera, a savage left wing satire that treated respectable middle classes as villains, while making heroes out of criminals and prostitutes -They were attacked by the right as ‘cultural Bolsheviks’

Question 75

What were the developments in film between 1924-28?

Answer 75

-Berlin became an important centre for world cinema, developing modern techniques that would later be exploited by Nazi propaganda. Important figures of Jewish descent in the German film industry included Fritz Lang, billy wilder and Josef Avon Sternberg -It was Sternberg who directed the best known film of the Weimar era, the blue angel, starring Marlene Dietrich as Lola, the sexy singer in a sleazy nightclub cabaret who seduces an innocent old professor played by Emil Jennings

Question 76

What happened in the 2 elections in 1924?

Answer 76

-Over 61% voted for pro republican parties in May 1924, and 67% in December -The May 1924 election was the first contested by the Nazis, when they won 6.5% of the vote. By December the Nazis’ vote share was down to 3% -On the left, the communist party also saw its fortunes fall after May 1924 -Whilst the nationalist political parties of the right began to accept the republic and work within it, rather than against it, they found their electoral position weakening from December 1924. The conservative right wing DNVP joined a reich coalition government for the first time in January 1925

Question 77

What did the political developments of 1924 show?

Answer 77

-Even so, the political developments of 1924 showed that the democratic parties were struggling to provide stable governments that commanded widespread support. Right wing anti republican parties were still in a position to do political damage to the republic

Question 78

What happened in the 1928 election?

Answer 78

-In the 1928 election, support for extremist and anti republican parties declined even further. The Nazis made little impression on the national political scene in 1928. Their share of the vote went down even lower than in 1924 -With 2.6% of the vote and winning only 12 seats, the NSDAP trailed behind obscure minor parties such as the bavarian peoples party and the Reich party of the German middle middle class -The previously unheard of Christian national peasants and farmers party did almost as well as the Nazis, winning 9 seats -The communist, KPD, however, saw a revival of its electoral support in 1928

Question 79

What happened with coalition governments.

Answer 79

-There were 7 seven coalition cabinets between November 1923 and March 1930. Governments in the Weimar Republic so called ‘golden age’, therefore, were scarcely more stable than those in the years 1919-23, despite the fact that support for anti democratic parties of the extreme left and extreme right was falling -Coalition governments throughout throughout the short history of the Weimar Republic were inherently unstable -Onoy 6 of the 23 cabinets between 1919 and 1932 had majority support in the Reichstag and many minority governments only survived as long as there was some semblance of unity between the parties that made up the coalitions

Question 80

What was the issue with coalition governments?

Answer 80

-In this situation, governments could not plan for the long term. Instead, they tended to muddle along from issue to issue. The historian Gordon Craig has written that government in the Weimar Republic ‘resembled an endless cabinet crisis, with more time and energy expended on the task of filling ministerial chairs than in governing the country’ -Sometimes, seemingly trivial issues could wreck a coalition cabinet. In 1926, for example, the government of Luther collapsed after a dispute over flags -When president Hindenburg ordered that the old imperial flag, should be flown alongside the new republican tricolour at all German consulates in other countries, the resulting dispute led to the collapse of the government

Question 81

Why did the problems of establishing and sustaining a coalition government arise?

Answer 81

-The problems of establishing and sustaining a stable coalition government arose because the number of workable combinations of parties was limited -The SPD and the DNVP would not serve in the same cabinet and the more moderate parties did not have enough seats to command a Reichstag majority. -The formation of the broadly based grand coalition in 1928, led by Herman Muller of the SPD, appeared to offer the potential for a more stable government. It was indeed, one of the longest lived coalitions of the Weimar era, remaining in office until March 1930 -Even this coalition, however, was fraught with divisions. Although the government was established in June 1928, it was not until the spring of 1929 that the parties involved finally agreed on the governments policies -There were ongoing disputes over the budget and over foreign policy, and the government only survived because of the strong working relationship between muller and Stresemann, the foreign minister

Question 82

What was the development of political parties in 1924-28?

Answer 82

-The quieter and more prosperous conditions of the years 1924-28 provided the pro democracy parties with an opportunity to try to establish a stable democratic system that could be supported by the majority of Germans. -They they largely failed to do so was due to a number of factors. Firstly, deputies in the Reichstag did not represent a particular constituency; instead, under proportional representation, deputies were chosen from party lists to collectively represent a large area -There was thus no direct connection between a deputy and his or her constituents. Secondly, the party list system gave party committees control over Reichstag deputies. Deputies were not allowed to display any individuality but had to behave according to the dictates of their party bureaucracies. The result was that the Reichstag became a rather sterile debating chamber remote from the concerns of ordinary voters -The leadership of the main pro democracy parties were also at fault. Factional rivalries weakened many parties. When leading party members became ministers in coalition cabinets, party committed would not allow them any flexibility to operate on their own initiative -Party leaders often gave higher priority to protecting the interests of their own party, and the interest groups they represented, than to the wider national interests -This brought the parliamentary system into disrepute and support for democratic institutions suffered as a result

Question 83

What were the developments in the SPD between 1924-28?

Answer 83

-Through the years 1924-28, the left wing SPD remained the largest single party in the Reichstag. It was the party that had taken the leading role in the revolution of 1918 and the establishment of the Weimar Republic -It therefore had a vital interest in the success of democratic government. Yet the SPD participated in only one of the 6 coalition cabinets that were established in these years. Although it had been in the process of becoming a thoroughly reformist, moderate party since the 1890s, it could not let go of the revolutionary Marxist rhetoric that had been its trademark since its foundation in the 1860s -This hangover from from the past tended to make the SPD rather inflexible on important issues and unwilling to make the kind of compromises that participation in coalition governments involved -It therefore tended to be a party that was more comfortable in opposition than in government -The SPD had close links with the trade unions and appealed mainly to industrial workers. It had limited appeal to young people and to women, and had no support among farmers, agricultural workers or to the mittlestand

Question 84

What was the developments of the centre party in the years between 1924-28?

Answer 84

-The centre party had been established to defend the interests of the Roman Catholic Church in the German empire and this remained its priority in the Weimar Republic. As a party based on religious affiliation, however, it’s appeal crossed class and occupational boundaries -It was supported by industrial workers and industrialists, farmers and their landlords, together with professional groups such as teachers -This broad based appeal made the party more flexible and pragmatic than the SPD, but also tended to cause divisions over social and economic issues -The centre party was vital to the success of Weimar democracy and no coalition government was formed without its participation -There was an important leadership change in 1928, however, which reflected a growing drift to the right. The new leader, Heinrich Bruning, was less committed to parliamentary democracy than Marx, his predecessor

Question 85

What were the developments of the DDP from 1924-28?

Answer 85

-The liberal DDP was in decline by the mid 1920s. It’s appeal was mainly to academics and professional groups, and it gave an impression of being composed of worthy intellectuals who had limited political experience -It was also increasingly riven by internal disputes and had great difficulty in conveying clearly and unequivocally what it stood for -It was, nevertheless, a party committed to the success of parliamentary democracy and participated in all of the coalition governments of this period

Question 86

What were the developments of the DVP between 1924-28?

Answer 86

-The conservative DVP, like the DDP, was committed to parliamentary democracy and also participated in all the coalition cabinets of the period. It had support amongst academics but it’s main support came from industrialists -The DVP provided the leading politician from 1924 to 1929, Gustav Stresemann, but after his death in 1929 the party drifted to the right and increasingly became a narrow pressure group promoting the interests of big business

Question 87

What were the developments of the DNVP between 1924-28?

Answer 87

-The conservative, nationalist DNVP broadened its appeal in the 1920s beyond its traditional base amongst landowners in the east of Germany. By the mid 1920s, it had attracted support from industrialists, professional groups and even some industrial workers -It was anti democratic and nationalist, with its main aims being restoration of the monarchy and dismantling of the treaty of Versailles. As an anti Weimar party, the DNVP refused to join coalitions most of the time -However, growing diversity in the party led to increased division over policy and tactics, with many of its newer and younger members being willing to compromise with democratic parties -The decisions to join the Luther cabinet in 1926 and the Marx cabinet in 1927, were, therefore, a significant change in the party’s tactics

Question 88

What happened to the DNVP in the 1928 election?

Answer 88

-In the 1928 Reichstag election, however, the DNVP suffered a significant loss of support, which encouraged the right in the party to return to their anti democratic ways. -When Hugenberg was chosen as party leader in 1928, the shift to the right was confirmed -It was Hugenberg who, in 1929, led the DNVP into an alliance with the Nazis and paramilitary groups in the campaign against the young plan -Henceforth, the DNVP returned to its blind opposition to the Weimar Republic

Question 89

What happened with the development of the NSDAP (Nazi party) between 1923 and 1927?

Answer 89

-After the failure of the Munich putsch in 1923, the Nazi party entered a period of decline, but also of reflection and reorganisation. While Hitler was in prison he wrote Mein Kampf and also took the opportunity to think about Nazi party tactics -He came to the conclusion that the route to power was not through an armed overthrow of the Weimar Republic- even though parliamentary violence was still to be an essential component of the Nazis tactics- but through winning mass support -The Nazis could not hope to win power if they did not have the support, or at least the acquiescence, of the army and other key groups among the elite -Hitler was released from prison early and and set about rebuilding the party, although he was severely hampered by the fact that the party and its stormtroopers were banned organisations -Until 1927 he was not allowed to speak in public. He used the time to assert his undisputed control over the Nazi party, to reorganise it and to re-orientate its campaigning

Question 90

What happened with the development of the Nazi party after 1927?

Answer 90

-At the end of 1927, the Nazi party had only 75,000 members and 7 deputies in the Reichstag. A key decision was taken in 1928, however, to broaden the Nazi party’s appeal -In a bid to capitalise on the discontent of farmers, the Nazis began to concentrate their efforts into rural areas, especially in the mainly protestant north of Germany -Across the country, the Nazis did badly in the 1928 Reichstag election, losing 100,000 votes -In some rural areas in the north, however, the Nazis share of the vote was as high as 18%. The party’s membership grew to over 150,000 by October 1929 and, in that same year, the party took control of its first town council -Even before the campaign against the young plan, which have Hitler the chance to make a name for himself as a national politician, the party was showing clear signs of revival

Question 91

What happened with the development of the KPD?

Answer 91

-The German communist party was the largest communist party outside Russia, but it never became a genuinely mass party. It had support in important industrial and port areas such as the Ruhr, saxony and Hamburg, and also in Berlin, and it had a significant presence in the Reichstag throughout the period -As an avowedly revolutionary party, however, it was dedicated to the overthrow of the Weimar Republic. As a member of the Comintern, the policies and tactics of the KPD were dictated by the communist party of the Soviet Union -In 1923, for example, at the height of the political and economic crisis caused by hyperinflation and the occupation of the Ruhr, the KPD leadership was summoned to Moscow to be instructed to launch a communist revolution in Germany -This led to communist uprisings in saxony and Hamburg, which were ruthlessly suppressed by the army. After 1924, the Soviet leadership instructed the Kpd that the opportunity for revolution had receded and that their main priority was to attack the SPD as ‘social facists’ and concentrated in attacking them rather than in countering the influence of the nazi party -This division in the working class movement in Germany weakened the anti Nazi forces in Weimar Germany

Question 92

What happened with the election of Hindenburg as president in 1925?

Answer 92

-Ebert, the first president of the Weimar Republic, died on 28th February 1925. He had been indirectly elected by the National Assembly, but his successor had to be elected according to the terms of the Weimar constitution, which meant that a full national election would have to be held -Under the terms of the constitution, unless a candidate received more than 50% of the vote in the first round of voting, there had to be a second ballot and it was possible to nominate alternative candidates in this second ballot

Question 93

What happened in the first round of the ballot in the election in 1925?

Answer 93

-In the first round, there were 7 candidates including Karl Jarres for the right (DVP and DNVP), Otto Braun for the SPD, Wilhelm Marx for the centre, Ernst Thalmann for the communist party and Erich Ludendorff, who stood as the Nazi party candidate -Jarred won the most votes, with the SPD in second place, but there was no outright winner

Question 94

What happened in the second round of the ballot in the 1925 election?

Answer 94

-In the second round, Jarres withdrew in favour of Paul von Hindenburg, who allegedly consulted the exiled ex Kaiser before he reluctantly agreed to stand. -The SPD calculated that Marx had a better chance of winning against Hindenburg than Braun, so withdrew its candidate and advised SPD supporters to vote for Marx -The number of candidates was reduced to just 3- Hindenburg, Marx and Thalmann -However, because of Thalmann’s candidacy, the left vote was split and, in the election on 26th April, Hindenburg won with 48.3% to Marx’s 45”3% -Thalmann trailed with 6.4%

Question 95

What did the election of Hindenburg in 1925 symbolise?

Answer 95

-Hindenburg was a symbol of the past. With his military uniform, his war medals and his authoritarian views, he was revered by the right, who regarded his election as the beginning of the restoration of the old order -For many, Hindenburg was the Ersatzkaiser (substitute emperor), and his election was seen as a major step away from parliamentary democracy -In the short term, this proved not to be true. When he took his presidential oath, Hindenburg appealed to the parties in the Reichstag to work with him in restoring national unity -He stuck closely to the letter of the Weimar constitution and did not abuse his powers. Moreover, his election was important in reconciling, at least temporarily, some anti democratic political parties, such as the DNVP, to the existence of the republic and to playing a more constructive role in making parliamentary democracy work

Question 96

What were party politicians response to the election of Hindenburg in 1925?

Answer 96

-However, for party politicians it was generally business as usual. They continued to place party political advantage above national interest, and cooperation between the parties was merely a means to secure tactical advantage -By the early 1930s, Hindenburg was becoming increasingly impatient with this party political manoeuvring at a time of serious economic crisis and he used his powers to rule by decree on a routine basis -Therefore, after 1925, presidential power was in the hand ps of a man who did not believe in democracy and was not prepared to defend it against its enemies

Question 97

What were the old elites attitudes to the republic?

Answer 97

-The old elites, who were firmly entrenched in the army, the civil service and the judiciary, were hostile to parliamentary democracy and held firm to the view that the republic was born out of betrayal to the fatherland -This hostility was strengthened by the signing of the humiliating Versailles treaty and by the political and economic crises of the early years of the republic -The election of Hindenburg wwjd some way towards reconciling the elites to the existence of the republic, but only because they believed that Hindenburg would steer Germany back towards a more authoritarian form of government

Question 98

What were the attitudes to the republic by industrial workers?

Answer 98

-There were many industrial workers who felt that the republic has not delivered on its promises if greater equality and social justice and that the crushing of the revolts by the army and the police, at the behest of democratically elected politicians, was clear evidence that parliamentary democracy was failing

Question 99

What was the attitudes to the republic by the middle class?

Answer 99

-Middle class support for moderate political parties was therefore vital if the Weimar Republic was to succeed in establishing solid foundations. It is difficult to generalise about the middle class in Germany since it was very diverse, with many variations in wealth, in religion and in political affiliations -There were many among the middle class who continued to prosper and were broadly supportive of the republic -There were many more, however, especially among the lower middle class mittlestand, who had suffered a catastrophic decline in their incomes as a result of hyperinflation and who had no organised way to defend their interests -People in this group welcomed the return of economic stability under Stresemann and political stability under Hindenburg, but their resentment of the republic continued to fester