154 Midterm Flashcards
Why We Communicate (4 needs)
Physical Needs Identity Needs Social Needs Practical Needs (aka. Instrumental Goals - getting others to behave in ways we want)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (5 stages)
(top-bottom in the pyramid)
- Self Actualization = self fulfilment
- Esteem = respect of others
- Love = affection- giving and receiving
- Safety = a harness
- Physiological = hunger
The Process of Communication
(A Linear View)
Linear Communication Model (6 factors)
- Sender = encodes ideas and feelings
- Message = organized ideas and feelings
- Channel = means of conveying messages
- Receiver = decodes the message
- Noise = any forces that interfere with effective communication
- Environments = fields of experience that help to understand others’ behaviour
3 types of “noise”
- External or Physical Noise = actually makes it difficult to hear (background noise)
- Physiological Noise = biological factors within the receiver that actually make it difficult to hear (hearing loss)
- Psychological Noise = forces within the communicator that interfere with the ability to express or understand a message effectively (mental noise)
The Process of Communication
(A Transactional View)
Transactional Communication Model (2 factors)
-Feedback = response of a receiver
to a sender’s message
-Behaviour = replaces the term of encoding, describes both deliberate and unintentional actions that can be observed and interpreted
Communication Principles
-Communication is transactional
-Communication can be intentional or
unintentional
-It’s impossible not to communicate
-Communication is irreversible
-Communication is unrepeatable
Communication Misconceptions
-Meanings are not in words
-More communication is not always better
-Communication will not solve all
problems
-Effective communication is not a natural ability
-No single person or event causes another’s reaction
The Nature of Interpersonal
Communication: Two Views of Interpersonal Communication
- Quantitative Definition - based on the
interaction between two people - Qualitative Definition - occurs when people treat one another as unique individuals
The Nature of Interpersonal
Communication: 2 Views of Interpersonal Communication
- Quantitative Definition - based on the
interaction between two people - Qualitative Definition - occurs when people treat one another as unique individuals
Martin Buber’s “I” and “You”
= “I-It” –stable, predictable, detached, we deal with people because they can do things for us eg. pump gas
= “I-You”-utterly unique relationships, because no two communicators are alike
*without “I-It” we cannot exist, but if we live with only “I-It” we are not fully human
Several features distinguish qualitatively interpersonal communication from less personal communication
- Uniqueness
- Irreplaceability
- Interdependence
- Amount of disclosure
- Intrinsic rewards
5 features distinguish qualitatively interpersonal communication from less personal communication
- Uniqueness
- Irreplaceability
- Interdependence
- Amount of disclosure
- Intrinsic rewards
Content of messages
contains the subject being discussed
Relational messages
how the parties feel toward one another
Metacommunication
describes messages people exchange about their relationship
Types of Relational Messages
- Affinity - the degree to which people like or appreciate one another
- Respect - to be held in esteem by others
- Control - the degree to which the parties have the power to influence one another
3 types of Relational Messages
- Affinity - the degree to which people like or appreciate one another
- Respect - to be held in esteem by others
- Control - the degree to which the parties have the power to influence one another
2 types of Control
- Decision
- Conversational
Distribution of Control (3 ways)
- Complementary = when distribution of power is unequal
- Symmetrical = partners seek same degree of control
- Parallel = power shifts from one to another, according to situation
Interpersonal Communication and Cultural Diversity: Culture=
“The language, values, beliefs, traditions, and customs people share and learn”
Interpersonal Communication and Cultural Diversity: In-groups =
Groups with which we identify
Interpersonal Communication and Cultural Diversity: Out-groups =
Those we view as different
Intercultural Communication
The process by which members of two or more cultures exchange messages in a manner that is influenced by their different cultural perceptions and symbol systems
Co-culture
A subgroup part of an encompassing culture
Communication Competence
= achieving one’s goals in a manner that, ideally, maintains or enhances the relationship in which it occurs =There is no “ideal” way to communicate: Competence is situational Competence is relational. Competence can be learned.
Generalized Characteristics of Competent Communicators
-A wide range of behaviours
-Ability to choose the most appropriate
behaviour
-Skill at performing behaviours (4 stages)
1. Beginning Awareness
2. Awkwardness
3. Consciously skilled
4. Integration
Skill at performing behaviours of competent communicators (4 stages)
- Beginning Awareness
- Awkwardness
- Consciously skilled
- Integration
3 specific Characteristics of Competent Communicators, and their defninitions
-Cognitive Complexity = ability to construct
a variety of different frameworks for viewing an issue
-Self-Monitoring = paying attention to one’s behaviour and using these observations to shape the way one behaves
-Commitment = people who seem to care about relationships communicate better than those who don’t.
Cognitive Complexity
ability to construct a variety of different frameworks for viewing an issue
Self-Monitoring
paying attention to one’s behaviour and using these observations to shape the way one behaves
Commitment
people who seem to care about relationships communicate better than those who don’t
Psychological Noise
forces within the communicator that interfere with the ability to express or understand a message effectively (mental noise)
Physiological Noise
biological factors within the receiver that actually make it difficult to hear (hearing loss)
External or Physical Noise
actually makes it difficult to hear (background noise)
Self-Concept
= the relatively stable set of perceptions you hold of yourself. Knowledge of yourself. Your own private view of yourself
Self Esteem
evaluations of self-worth, the extent to
which one values, appreciates or approves of him or herself.
Self-control
Your ability to change some part of you to meet a personal goal or social expectation
How the Self-Concept Develops
- Reflected appraisal
- Social Comparison
Reflected appraisal
(The looking-glass self)- each of us develops a self-concept that matches the way we believe others see us
-Significant others = people whose
opinions we especially value
Social Comparison
- We evaluate ourselves in terms of how we compare to others
- Reference groups = groups against which we compare ourselves, thereby influencing our self-esteem and self-concept
The self-concept is subjective for some of the following reasons:
- obsolete information
- distorted feedback
- self verification
- perfection
- social expectations
The self-concept resists change:
Cognitive conservatism =
Tendency to look for information that conforms to an existing self-concept
Self-fulfilling prophecy
occurs when a person’s expectations of an event make the outcome more likely to occur than would otherwise have been true
Types of self-fulfilling prophecies
Self-imposed prophecies
Other-imposed prophecies
Influences on Identity
Diversity
Culture
Sex/Gender
The Self in Individualistic Cultures
- Self is separate, individuals should be independent
- Individual should take care of him/herself and immediate family
- Friends are based on shared interests and activities
- Reward for individual achievement and initiative
- High value on autonomy, individual security
The Self in Collectivistic Cultures
- People belong to extended families or a group
- Person should take care of extended family before self
- Emphasis on belonging to a very few permanent in-groups
- Reward for contribution to group goals
- High value on duty, order, tradition, age, group security, status, and hierarchy
Changing Your Self-Concept
Have realistic expectations
Have a realistic perception of yourself
Have the will to change
Have the skill to change
Identity Management
the communication strategies people use to influence how others view them.
Perceived self
reflection of the self-concept, the person you believe yourself to be
Presenting self
public image, the way we want others to view us
Characteristics of Identity Management
- We strive to construct multiple identities.
- Identity management is collaborative.
- Identity management can be deliberate or unconscious.
- Identity management varies by situation.
- People differ in their degree of identity management.
Why Manage Identities?
-Social rules govern our behaviour
-Accomplish personal goals
-Sometimes identity management aims at achieving relational goals such as
affiliation, control, or respect
How Do We Manage Identities?
- Face to Face Impression Management
- Mediated Communication
Mediated Communication
- Appearance: paper, words, images, sounds
- Editing: including or excluding information
Face to Face Impression Management
- Manner = consists of a communicator’s words and nonverbal actions
- Appearance = personal items people use to shape an image
- Setting = physical items we use to influence how others view us
Identity Management and Honesty
Although identity management might seem manipulative, it can be an authentic form of communication. Because each person has a variety of faces that he or she can reveal, choosing which one to present need not be dishonest.
Perception
the process whereby we assign meaning to the world around us
Perception: What You See Is What You Get
-The Perception Process
-Influences on Perception
-Perception Checking to Prevent Misunderstandings
-The Accuracy - and Inaccuracy - of
Perception
-Empathy and Communication
The Perception Process
- Selection = first stage in perception process in which some data are chosen to attend to and others are ignored.
- Organization = stage in the perception process that involves arranging data in a meaningful way.
- Interpretation = process of attaching meaning to make sense of data
Organization in The Perception Process
stage in the perception process that involves arranging data in a meaningful way -Perceptual schema -Stereotyping -Punctuation
Selection in The Perception Process
first stage in perception process in
which some data are chosen to attend to and others are ignored.
The Perception Process: Organization- Perceptual schema =
cognitive frameworks that allow us to organize the raw data we have selected according to:
- Appearance
- Social roles
- Interaction style
- Psychological traits
- Membership
The Perception Process: Organization- Stereotyping =
exaggerated generalizations associated with a categorizing system
The Perception Process: Organization- Punctuation =
describes the determination of
causes and effects in a series of interactions
Interpretation in The Perception Process
= process of attaching meaning to
make sense of data.
Factors of Interpretation:
- Degree of involvement
- Past Experience
- Assumptions about human behaviour
- Expectations
- Knowledge
- Self-concept
- Relational Satisfaction
7 Factors of Interpretation:
- Degree of involvement
- Past Experience
- Assumptions about human behaviour
- Expectations
- Knowledge
- Self-concept
- Relational Satisfaction
Physiological Influences On Perception
- The Senses
- Age
- Health
- Hunger
- Fatigue
- Biological Cycles
Cultural Differences Influences On Perception
- Every culture has its own worldview, its own way of looking at the world.
- Nonverbal behaviours also differ from one part of the world to another.
- Even beliefs about the very value of talk differ from one culture to another.
Social Roles Influences On Perception
Gender Roles
Occupational roles
Influences On Perception
- Physiological Influences
- Cultural Differences
- Social Roles
- Self-Concept
- Shared Narratives
Shared Narrative
perception of the world shared by a collection of people
Self-serving bias
tendency to judge ourselves in the most generous terms possible
The Accuracy - and Inaccuracy -
Of Perception
- We often judge ourselves more charitably than others
- We tend to favor negative impressions of others over positive ones
- We tend to be more influenced by less desirable characteristics
- We cling to first impressions
- Labels are a way of making interpretations
- We select stimuli from our environment that are noticeable
- We are influenced by what is most obvious
3 Elements of Perception Checking
- A description of the behaviour you noticed
- At least two possible interpretations of behaviour
- A request for clarification about how to interpret the behaviour
Perception Checking
a tool for helping you understand others accurately instead of assuming that your first interpretation is correct.
Perception Checking example
- Description of behaviour = (be as objective as possible!) eg. “When you came home, you threw your coat on the ground and stomped upstairs”.
- At least two possible interpretations = ”Are you angry with me or did you just have a bad day?”
- A request for clarification = ”What’s up?”
Perception-Checking Considerations
- Completeness
- Nonverbal Congruency
- Cultural Rules
Empathy
ability to re-create another person’s
perspective; experience the world from the other’s point of view
Three Dimensions of Empathy:
- Perspective taking
- Emotional dimension
- Genuine concern
Three Dimensions of Empathy
- Perspective taking
- Emotional dimension
- Genuine concern
Sympathy
compassion for another’s situation
Pillow Method
method for understanding an issue from several perspectives rather than with an egocentric attitude.
-There is Truth in All Four Perspectives
Using the Pillow Method to Build Empathy
- Position 1: I’m Right, You’re Wrong
- Position 2: You’re Right, I’m Wrong
- Position 3: Both Right, Both Wrong
- Position 4: The Issue Isn’t as Important as it Seems
- Conclusion: There is Truth in All Four Perspectives
