14. The Blood Transfusion Lab Flashcards

1
Q

What is the difference between antigens and antibodies?

A

Antigens are part of the surface of cells
- All blood cells have antigens

Antibodies are protein molecules ~ immunoglobulins (Ig)

  • Usually of the immunoglobulin classes: IgG and IgM
  • Found in the plasma
  • Produced by the immune system following exposure to a foreign antigen

Reactions to blood usually occurs when the antibody in the plasma reacts with an antigen on the cells

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2
Q

Describe the known blood groups.

A

There are 26 known blood group systems
ABO and Rh are clinically most important

Antigens in transfused blood can stimulate a patient to produce an antibody but only if the patient lacks the antigen themselves

The frequency of antibody production is very low but increases the more transfusions that are given

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3
Q

What can stimulate antibody production?

A
  • BLOOD TRANSFUSION
    i. e. blood carrying antigens foreign to the patient
  • PREGNANCY
    Fetal antigen entering maternal circulation during pregnancy or at birth
  • ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
    (i. e. naturally acquired e.g. anti-A and anti-B)
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4
Q

What are the different antibody-antigen reactions?

A

IN VIVO (IN THE BODY) ~ leads to the destruction of the cell either:

  • directly when the cell breaks up in the blood stream (intravascular)
  • indirectly when liver and spleen remove antibody coated cells (extravascular)
IN VITRO (IN THE LABORATORY)
- reactions are normally seen as agglutination tests
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5
Q

What is agglutination?

A
  • Agglutination is the clumping together of red cells into visible agglutinates by antigen-antibody reactions
  • Agglutination results from antibody cross-linking with the antigens
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6
Q

What can agglutination help us identify?

A

As the antigen-antibody reaction is specific, agglutination can identify:-

  • The presence of a red cell antigen. i.e. blood grouping
  • The presence of an antibody in the plasma i.e. antibody screening/identification
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7
Q

What is the clinical significance of the ABO grouping system?

A
  • A and B antigens very common (55% UK)
  • Anti-A, anti-B or anti-A,B antibodies very common (97% UK)
  • High risk of A or B cells being transfused into someone with the antibody in a random situation
  • ABO antibodies can activate complement causing INTRAVASCULAR HAEMOLYSIS
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8
Q

How would you identify a patient’s blood group via lab testing?

A

The patient’s red cells and plasma are both tested

1) Test patient’s red cells with anti-A, anti-B and anti-D
- agglutination shows that a particular antigen is on the red cells
- no agglutination shows the antigen is absent

2) Test patient’s plasma with A cells and B cells
- agglutination shows that a particular antibody is in the plasma or serum
- no agglutination shows the antibody is absent

*From these results, using the blood group table, we can interpret the data and figure out the patient’s blood group

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9
Q

Describe the Rh grouping system

A
  • 50+ antigens:
  • Most important antigen is called D.
  • People with D antigen are RhD positive (85% of UK)
  • People who do not produce any D antigen are RhD negative (15%)
  • The other 4 main Rh antigens are known as C, c, E and e
  • Most important after ABO
  • Must be tested in duplicate (or tested each time and compared to historical result)
  • Patient / Donor classified as RhD pos or RhD neg
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10
Q

What is the clinical significance of Rh grouping?

A

*Rh antibodies are clinically significant ~ Second only to ABO

TRANSFUSION

  • D antigen is very immunogenic and anti-D is easily stimulated - PREVENTION!
  • All Rh antibodies are capable of causing severe transfusion reaction- ANTIBODY DETECTION

PREGNANCY

  • Rh antibodies are usually IgG and can cause haemolytic disease of the newborn.
  • Anti-D is still most common cause of severe HDN
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11
Q

Describe an example of how HDN works

A
  • Haemolytic disease of the newborn

1) There is a Rh+ father and a Rh- mother.
2) The Rh- mother is carrying her Rh+ foetus. Rh antigens from the developing foetus can enter the mother’s blood during delivery.
3) In response to the foetal Rh antigens, the mother will produce anti-Rh antibodies.
4) It he woman become pregnant with another Rh+ foetus, her anti-Rh antibodies will cross the placenta and damage the foetal red blood cells.

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12
Q

How would you use laboratory screening to prevent HDN consequences?

A
  • Blood group and antibody screen at antenatal booking to identify pregnancies at risk of HDN ~ RhD negative women who may need anti-D prophylaxis
  • Blood group and antibody screen at 28 weeks
  • Atypical antibodies are quantified periodically to assess their potential effect on the fetus
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13
Q

What do we do when there is an RhD- woman who is pregnant?

A
  • An injection of anti-D prophylaxis or RAADP will bind to and remove any fetal RhD positive red cells in the circulation
  • 1500 iu of anti-D is given routinely at 28 weeks and a smaller dose (usually 500 iu) after delivery if baby RhD+
  • In some hospitals 2 smaller (500 iu) doses are given at 28 and 34 weeks instead of the 1 larger dose
  • Anti-D is also given after any event that may cause a feto-maternal haemorrhage (bleed between mum and fetus) such as:
    • Abdominal trauma
    • Intrauterine death
    • Spontaneous or therapeutic abortion
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14
Q

Why do we perform antibody screening?

A
  • There are other clinically significant antibodies that can cause a haemolytic transfusion reaction.
  • It is important that we screen for these antibodies so that If detected, antigen negative blood can be provided to avoid causing a immune reaction.
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15
Q

How do we perform antibody screening?

A
  • Patients serum is mixed with 3 selected screening cells, incubated for 15 minutes at 37oc and then centrifuged for 5 minutes.
  • Any clinically significant antibodies reacting at body temp should be detected and then identified using panel of known phenotyped red cells.
  • Specific antigen negative blood can then be provided for these patients to avoid stimulating an immune response.
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16
Q

What do we do when we detect an antibody during screening?

A

If an antibody is detected we must:-

  • Identify the antibody
  • Assess its clinical significance (for transfusion, in pregnancy etc)
17
Q

How do you identify an antibody?

A
  • Compare pattern of reactions with each reagent cell of ID panel with the pattern of antigens on the reagent cells
  • Matching pattern will identify the antibody
18
Q

What is the indirect anti-globulin test (IAT)?

A

Used to detect IgG antibodies. LISS counteracts Zeta potential. Results in agglutination.

Used for:

  • Screening for antibodies
  • Identifying antibodies
  • Cross-matching donor blood with recipient plasma when there are known antibodies or a previous history of antibodies.
19
Q

Describe the different methods of crossmatching.

A

IMMEDIATE SPIN CROSS-MATCH (ISX)
- Antibody screen is negative
- Checking donor red cells against patients plasma (ABO check
Incubate for 2 – 5 minutes (room temp), spin and read).

FULL INDIRECT ANTIGLOBULIN TEST (IAT) CROSS-MATCH

  • Antibody screen positive or patient has known antibody history.
  • Select antigen negative donor red cells and incubate with patient serum for 15 minutes at 37oC
20
Q

Describe the red cells stored in blood banks

A
  • Concentrated red cells (packed cells) in a suspension of SAGM
  • Red cells oxygen carrying capacity
  • Symptomatic anaemia
  • If significant bleeding anticipated, activate the major haemorrhage protocol
21
Q

Describe the fresh frozen plasma stored in blood banks

A
  • FFP contains all clotting factors
  • Given for coagulopathy with associated bleeding
  • Requires clotting screens to monitor
  • Only has 24 hour life after thawing
    (five days for major haemorrhage)
22
Q

Describe the platelets stored in blood banks

A
  • Adult pool of platelets from 4 donors (suspended in plasma from 1 donor)
  • Platelets required to create clots to reduce bleeding
  • Some drugs given to reduce efficacy of platelets (anti-platelet agents) so patient history important
23
Q

Describe cryoprecipitate

A
  • Contains Factor VIII, VWF and fibrinogen
  • 2 units usually given at one time
  • Monitor fibrinogen levels by clotting screens
24
Q

What are the different methods of regulation of blood?

A
  • EU Blood Safety Directive
  • Blood Safety Quality Regulations
  • Better Blood Transfusion 3
  • MHRA inspections
  • CPA inspections
25
Q

Describe different haemovigilance schemes

A
  • Serious Hazards of Transfusion (SHOT):
  • Voluntary reporting
  • Report all Serious adverse Events (SAE) and Serious adverse reactions (SAR)
  • Serious Adverse Blood reactions and events (SABRE):
  • Mandatory reporting
  • Report all SAR and SAE where the root cause error was the Quality system