14. Geography : Measuring and Improving Wellbeing

Answer 1

wellbeing a good or satisfactory
condition of existence; a
state characterised by health,
happiness, prosperity and welfare
quantitative indicators
objective indices that are easily
measured and can be stated
numerically, such as annual
income or the number of doctors
in a country
qualitative indicators subjective
measures that cannot easily be
calculated or measured; e.g.
indices that measure a particular
aspect of quality of life or that
describe living conditions, such as
freedom or security
indicator a value that informs
us of a condition or progress. It
can be defined as something that
helps us to understand where we
are, where we are going and how
far we are from the goal.
development defined as ‘to
lead long and healthy lives, to be
knowledgeable, to have access
to the resources needed for a
decent standard of living and to
be able to participate in the life of
the community’ according to the
United Nations
gross domestic product
(GDP) the value of all goods
and services produced within a
country in a given period, usually
discussed in terms of GDP per
capita (total GDP divided by the
population of the country)
standard of living a level of
material comfort in terms of
goods and services available.
This is often measured on a
continuum; for example, a ‘high’
or ‘excellent’ standard of living
compared to a ‘low’ or ‘poor’
standard of living

Answer 2

fertility rate the number of
live births per 1000 women of
childbearing age (usually 15–44) in
a given year
non-government organisation
(NGO) an organisation that
operates independently of
government, usually to deliver
resources or serve some social or
political purpose

Answer 3

Understanding Wellbeing and Development

Understanding Wellbeing
* Wellbeing is the experience of having what is needed for life to be good.
* It is measured using quantitative and qualitative indicators.

The Concept of Development
* Traditional development measures focus on economic growth, but now includes providing for basic needs, equity, social justice, sustainability, freedom, and safety.
* Development programs address all areas of wellbeing, not just economic, health, or education statistics.

Measuring Development
* Economic indicators measure economic progress using data like GDP.
* Qualitative indicators measure quality of life, which is harder to quantify and compare.

Indicators Categorization
* Economic indicators measure aspects of the economy and its performance.
* Social indicators include demographic, social, and health measures.
* Environmental indicators assess resources for social and economic development.
* Political indicators look at how effective governments are in improving people’s standard of living.
* Technological indicators influence wellbeing in fields like transport, industry, agriculture, mining, and communications.

Geographers’ Use of Indicators
* Data from various indicators can identify spatial distribution patterns and explain why these patterns exist.
* Understanding the terms used, values underpinned, and perspective taken is important.

Answer 4

Understanding Development Levels and Wellbeing

• Different terms like’more economically developed country’ (MEDC) and ‘less economically developed country’ (LEDC) are used to describe levels of development in economic, social, environmental, and political spheres.
• Newly industrialised countries (NIC) are rapidly modernizing and experiencing rapid economic growth. Emerging economies (EEs) are places experiencing rapid economic growth but face significant political, monetary, or social challenges.

The Multiple Component Index
* A wellbeing approach to development considers a variety of quantitative and qualitative indicators, including happiness.
* A single indicator provides a narrow picture of a country’s development, revealing inequalities.

Global Wealth
* The richest one percent of adults worldwide owned 47% of global assets in 2018, while the richest 10% accounted for 85% of the world total.
* Wealth is heavily concentrated in North America, western Europe, and high-income Asia-Pacific countries, collectively holding 78% of total world wealth.

The Human Development Index (HDI)
* Developed in 1990, the HDI measures wellbeing according to three key indicators.
* Other measures of wellbeing include the Happy Planet Index (HPI), which maps the extent to which 151 countries produce long, happy, and sustainable lives for their citizens.

Answer 5

Happy Planet Index (HPI) Overview

• HPI scores are based on life expectancy, experienced wellbeing, and ecological footprint.
• To achieve bright green, a country must perform well on all three components.
• Gross National Happiness (GNH) was developed in 2011 by Bhutan’s Prime Minister, with the goal of addressing social, economic, and environmental costs of progress.
• Bhutan’s happiness increased from 0.743 in 2010 to 0.756 in 2015, a 1.8% increase.
• Australia ranks 10th in the top 10 countries with a score of 7.227 out of 10.
• The Australian National Development Index (ANDI) incorporates 12 indicators measuring health, education, justice, and First Nations Australians’ wellbeing.
• Life expectancy, calculated according to the conditions in a particular country in that year, is a major indicator of wellbeing.
• Life expectancy varies worldwide due to variations in living conditions.
• Wealthier people in all countries can expect to live longer than poorer people.
• Women generally outlive men, and higher incomes enable better access to education, food, clean water, and healthcare.

Answer 6

Life Expectancy and Child Mortality
* Life expectancy and child mortality are interconnected, with low life expectancy leading to higher prevalence of infectious diseases.
* Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest number of deaths from AIDS, with 72% of people living with the disease.
* High child mortality rates are linked to low life expectancy, with sub-Saharan Africa having the highest mortality rate.
* Wealthier households have lower child deaths due to better nutrition, immunization, and education.
* The United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals program significantly reduced child mortality, with the greatest success in northern Africa and eastern Asia.
* Improvements in preventable childhood diseases, such as the measles vaccine, have reduced measles-related deaths by 80%.
* Despite these improvements, there are still 207,500 deaths globally due to measles due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Births and Deaths
* Every minute, there are an estimated 250 births and 105 deaths worldwide, impacting human wellbeing.
* Population change rates vary globally, with some places experiencing a decline rather than an increase.

Answer 7

Global Population Growth and Maternal Mortality

Birth Rates and Death Rates
* Africa has the highest fertility rates, projected to reach 2.5 billion by 2050.
* Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest fertility rates, with Niger and Somalia having the highest rates.
* Europe has the lowest fertility rates, with France slightly higher than this average.
* Taiwan recorded the lowest fertility rate in the world in 2020, with 1.2 births per woman.
* Australia’s fertility rate is 1.6.

Population Growth and Decrease
* Population growth is dependent on variations in births and deaths.
* High fertility levels lead to population growth, while fewer births result in a declining population.
* Natural population change ranges from over 3% growth in African nations to negative growth primarily in Europe.

Maternal Mortality
* Maternal mortality is a significant concern for women worldwide, with less economically developed countries (LEDCs) generally experiencing worse human wellbeing.
* Women in low-income countries have a 1 in 36 lifetime risk of maternal mortality, compared to 1 in 3300 in high-income countries.
* The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to end gender discrimination, achieve gender equality, and empower women and girls.
* Every day, approximately 830 women die from complications related to pregnancy or childbirth, mostly from preventable complications.

Answer 8

Maternal Mortality and Global Health Challenges

Maternal Mortality Rates in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia
* Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for two-thirds of all maternal deaths.
* Sierra Leone and Chad have the highest maternal mortality rates.
* Nigeria and India account for one-third of total global maternal deaths.

Mid-Decline Goals (MDGs) and Access to Reproductive Health
* MDGs set a target of reducing maternal mortality by three-quarters and universal access to reproductive health by 2015.
* Despite a 45% decrease in maternal mortality during the MDG period, the 75% target was not met, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.

Access to Reproductive Health
* Most indicators fell short of universal access, with wealthier women having the best access to contraception.
* Unmet need for contraception among poorer women remains high.

SDGs Target for Maternal Mortality Rate
* SDGs aim for a maternal mortality rate below 70 per 100,000 by 2030.
* Cambodia, Rwanda, and Timor-Leste achieved this reduction rate in the 15 years from 2000 to 2015.

India’s Population Changes
* India’s population is expected to surpass China’s by 2025, rising from 1.37 to 1.46 billion.
* Despite a decline in child mortality, India’s population is growing at a rate of 1.1% per year.
* Infant mortality remains high due to rural dwellers lacking access to health and reproductive services.
* 27 per cent of the population is under 15 years of age, creating momentum for future growth.

Answer 9

Maternal Mortality in India and Poverty
* Maternal mortality in India is significantly linked to poverty in rural and urban areas.
* Poor sanitation and lack of affordable health services are linked to high maternal mortality rates.
* Women are often less well-nourished and less literate, making them less likely to access health and contraception information.
* The Indian government launched the National Rural Health Mission in 2005 to focus on maternal health, providing community workers and cash incentives to women.
* Despite a decrease in maternal mortality, many women are still charged for services due to lack of awareness.
* The pressure to produce a son has led to many Indian women having multiple pregnancies, increasing their risk of maternal mortality.

Defining Poverty
* The United Nations defines poverty as a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity, and living in marginal or fragile environments.
* Poverty is often measured solely using economic indicators, with over one billion people living in extreme poverty.

Answer 10

Rio de Janeiro’s Wellbeing and Development

• Rio de Janeiro, Brazil’s eighth-largest economy, faces significant wealth inequality, with a quarter of the population living in poverty.
• The wealthiest 5% of the population earns the same income as the remaining 95%.
• Industrial development has primarily occurred in the south and south-east regions, generating more wealth.
• The north-east region, based on agriculture, has higher rates of poverty and infant mortality and lower rates of nutrition.
• Rio de Janeiro’s rapid growth has led to the construction of slums on wasteland or vacant land, leading to the development of favelas.
• The poorest citizens live on unstable slopes with spectacular views, while the wealthier live on more stable flatter land closer to the city centre.
• According to the 2010 census, 22% of Rio’s population lived across some 763 favelas.
• Rocinha, Rio’s largest favela, is located in the southern zone of the city, close to the beaches of Ipanema and Copacabana districts.

Answer 11

Effect of Favela-Living on Wellbeing

Issues Affecting Wellbeing:
* Lack of infrastructure: Nearly one-third of favela households lack sanitation, leading to higher disease rates.
* Vulnerability to weather extremes: Heavy rainfall creates landslides and floods on steep slopes. Timber shacks are more vulnerable to collapse.
* Lack of access: Movement around the favelas is via narrow lanes and steep staircases.
* Long commuting times: The average time to the city centre of Rio is 1.5 hours by bus, limiting educational and employment opportunities.
* Lower household income: The average household income for people living in the favelas is approximately half that of those living in the inner suburbs.
* High crime rates: The incidence of homicide and other crimes is high due to the influence of drug trafficking and criminal gangs.
* A sense of insecurity: Most people do not have legal title to their land or dwellings and can be moved by the government at any time.

Improvements to Wellbeing:
* Introduction of Pacifying Police Units: In 2008, 37 UPPs were in place to reduce crime and improve safety.
* Installation of cable cars: To improve access for favela residents, with local residents entitled to one free round trip per day.
* Expansion of infrastructure: As Brazil hosted the 2014 World Cup soccer tournament and the 2016 Olympic Games, many of the planned Olympic Zones were located on existing favela sites.
* Economic uncertainty: Brazil’s ambitious plan to improve the wellbeing and living conditions of the favelas has been limited by recent economic uncertainty.
* Preventing the continued growth of favelas by providing adequate low-income housing is the most cost-effective means of improving wellbeing.

Answer 12

Australia’s Population and Health Inequalities

• Oxfam and World Vision provide water filters, safe toilets, water pumps, and rainwater harvesting systems to communities.
• These facilities free up women and girls from work, improving food availability and income.
• Girls have more time to attend school, freeing them from essential chores.

Australia’s Population

• Australia’s population reached 25.9 million in September 2020.
• Most of the population is concentrated in coastal regions, with 71% living in major cities.
• Rural and remote areas have shorter lives, higher disease and injury rates, and poorer access to health services.
• Factors contributing to health inequalities include lifestyle differences, social determinants, risky behaviors, and occupational and physical risk.

Life Satisfaction in Rural and Remote Areas

• Despite poorer health outcomes, Australians living in small towns and non-urban areas generally experience higher life satisfaction.
• Rural and remote Australians report increased community interconnectedness, social cohesion, and community participation.

Equality in Australia

• First Nations Peoples of Australia make up 3.3% of the Australian population, with a median age of 23 years.
• The rest of the population is ageing, with a median age of 37 years.
• It would be unfair for one community sector to experience significant disadvantage when the rest enjoy a ‘good life’.

Answer 13

Rio’s Population Growth and Poverty Challenges
* Rio’s population growth is largely due to rural-urban migration, making housing and space provision challenging.
* The government’s Brazil Without Misery Plan aimed to eliminate extreme poverty by 2014, involving cash transfer payments, improved infrastructure, vocational training, and micro-credit.
* Despite reducing extreme poverty from 10% in 2004 to 4% by 2012, extreme poverty rates remained high, reaching 4.8% in 2017.

Global Poverty, Water Supply, and Sanitation
* Approximately 840 million people lack access to clean, safe drinking water, and over two billion people use contaminated water sources.
* Water-related diseases are the leading cause of death among the poor, particularly children.
* Millennium Development Goal 7 halved the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water by 2015, with 91% of the global population using improved drinking water in 2015.
* Sustainable Development Goal 6 sets new targets for improved access to clean water and sanitation by 2030.
* Regional variations exist, with 90% of people in Latin America, Northern Africa, and Asia having improved water supply, compared to only 68% in sub-Saharan Africa.
* Successful projects involving NGOs focus on community involvement and education.

Answer 14

First Nations Australians’ Wellbeing and Socioeconomic Disadvantage

• First Nations Australians consistently experience lower levels of health, education, employment, and economic independence compared to other Australians.
• Socioeconomic factors such as land dispossession, displacement, discrimination, and remoteness and isolation contribute to these inequalities.
• Disadvantages can affect a student’s ability to attend school and their employment prospects.
• The Close the Gap program aimed to eliminate health and wellbeing differences between First Nations Australians and non-First Nations Australians in 2008.
• The program set six key targets: closing the life expectancy gap, halving mortality rates for First Nations Australian children under five, ensuring access to early childhood education, halving reading, writing, and numeracy achievements, halving Year 12 attainment rates, and halving employment outcomes.
• The Closing the Gap Reset program in 2020 reset targets in all areas, involving First Nations Australians in leading and measuring progress.
• Key areas of focus include families, children, youth, housing, justice, health, suicide prevention, culture and language, education, land and sea rights, and eliminating racism and systemic discrimination.
• The National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Survey (NATSISS) measures the health and wellbeing of First Nations Australian communities.

Answer 15

Aboriginal Australians’ Wellbeing Improvement Initiatives

• The National Partnership Agreement on Closing the Gap in Indigenous Health Outcomes: This initiative aims to address the health disparities faced by First Nations Australian communities.
• The Australian government licensing scheme for community stores in the Northern Territory: This initiative requires store managers to offer healthy food and drinks, improving management, hygiene, and employment of local staff.
• The Wylak Project: This initiative builds the leadership capacity of First Nations Australian youth by offering grants in cultural projects, advocacy/campaigning, and learning events.
• Lombadina Aboriginal community program: The community, home to approximately 200 Bardi people, is working towards self-sufficiency through tourism operations, a general store, an artefact and craft shop, a bakery, and a garage.
• Lombadina is also involved in the EON Thriving Communities Project, a non-government organization aiming to close the health gap in First Nations Australian communities through practical knowledge about growing and preparing healthy food.