10. Geography: Inland water change and management

Answer 1

river fragmentation the
interruption of a river’s natural
flow by dams, withdrawals or
transfers
reservoir large natural or artificial
lake used to store water, created
behind a barrier or dam wall
weir wall or dam built across a
river channel to raise the level of
water behind; this can then be
used for gravity-fed irrigation
flood mitigation managing the
effects of floods rather than trying
to prevent them altogether

Answer 1

wetland :an area covered by
water permanently, seasonally or
ephemerally. They include fresh,
salt and brackish waters, such
as rivers, lakes, rice paddies and
areas of marine water, the depth
of which at low tide does not
exceed 6 metres.
perennial :describes a stream or
river that flows permanently
ephemeral : describes a stream or
river that flows only occasionally,
usually after heavy rain
groundwater: water held
underground within water-bearing
rocks or aquifers

Answer 2

green energy sustainable or
alternative energy (e.g. wind, solar
and tidal)
infrastructure the basic physical
and organisational structures and
facilities (e.g. buildings, roads,
power supplies) needed for the
operation of a society
catchment (or drainage
basin) any area of land where
precipitation collects and drains
off into a common outlet, such as
a river, bay or other body of water

Answer 3

rainwater harvesting the
accumulation and storage of
rainwater for reuse before it soaks
into underground aquifers
micro hydro-dams dams that
produce hydro-electric power on
a scale serving a small community
(less than 10 MW). They usually
require minimal construction and
have very little environmental
impact.

Answer 3

base flow water entering
a stream from groundwater
seepage, usually through the
banks and bed of the stream
recharge the process by which
groundwater is replenished by the
slow movement of water down
through soil and rock layers
subsidence the gradual sinking
of landforms to a lower level as a
result of earth movements, mining
operations or over-withdrawal
of water.
watertable: upper level of
groundwater; the level below
which the earth is saturated with
water.

Answer 3

icon sites six sites located in
the Murray–Darling Basin that
are earmarked for environmental
flows. They were chosen for
their environmental, cultural and
international significance.
environmental flows the
quantity, quality and timing of
water flows required to sustain
freshwater ecosystems

Answer 3

aquifers : layers of porous rock
that can hold large quantities of
water in the pore spaces.
Ramsar Convention an
international treaty for the
conservation and sustainable use
of wetlands.
UNESCO biosphere :reserve
The Man and Biosphere
Programme is an international
scientific program established
by the United Nations to
create biosphere reserves as
‘learning places for sustainable
development’.
terminal lake: a lake where the
water does not drain into a river or
sea. Water can leave only through
evaporation, which can increase
salt levels in arid regions. Also
known as an endorheic lake.
impervious : a rock layer that
does not allow water to move
through it due to a lack of cracks
and fissures
eutrophication :a process where
water bodies receive excess
nutrients that stimulate excessive
plant growth
river regime: the pattern of
seasonal variation in the volume
of a river.

Answer 4

Inland Water: A Comprehensive Overview

Understanding Inland Water
* Inland water, comprising rivers, lakes, and wetlands, is a significant portion of Earth’s water.
* It serves various purposes including domestic, agricultural, industrial, and recreational water use.
* It provides habitats for aquatic and terrestrial life and is a crucial link in the water cycle.

Importance of Inland Water
* Inland water provides fresh water, food, and habitats, and provides environmental services like filtering pollutants and storing floodwater.
* Its economic value is often overlooked until services are lost or degraded.

Threats to Inland Water
* In the 20th century, the United States, Europe, and Australia lost over 50% of their inland water.
* The remaining systems are often shrunken and polluted due to human-induced environmental changes.

Causes of Change to Inland Water Systems
* Increasing population and increasing water demand.
* Regulatory features like recharging groundwater and filtering pollutants.
* Increased withdrawal of water for human and agricultural use.
* Large-scale wetlands draining for farmland.
* Construction of infrastructure supporting water quality and quantity.
* Changes in river flow and habitats.
* Changes in land use and water quality.
* Increased risk of erosion and flood.
* Excessive water removal for irrigation.
* Reduced water quantity and quality.
* Less water available for groundwater supply.
* Reduced water and food security.
* Loss of habitat and biodiversity.
* Pollution of groundwater.
* Decline in water quality for domestic and agricultural use.

Answer 5

Dam Rivers: A Human-Induced Environmental Change

• Dams are a significant form of human-induced environmental change, affecting river systems and providing a reliable water supply.
• The global demand for water has increased by 600% in the last century, with the potential to exceed supply by 2030.
• Water distribution is uneven, leading to the need for storage, release, and transfer of water.
• Dam construction often contributes to unsustainable water use, with over 60% of the world’s major rivers controlled by dams.
• Large-scale dams bring significant environmental and community changes, both positive and negative.
• Traditionally, dams were used to make use of water resources, but recent questions have raised the real cost of these schemes.
• Multi-purpose dams have conflicting aims, such as generating hydro-electricity, providing flood mitigation, and using water for irrigation.
• The infrastructure of mega projects promotes artificial water abundance, leading to unsustainable water use and environmental degradation.

Answer 5

People vs Power: The Belo Monte Dam Case Study

Global Movement Against Mega Dams
* Community and environmental groups are challenging the construction of mega dams due to location, sustainability, and potential social, economic, and environmental impacts.
* There are 509 dams currently planned or built globally, especially in legally protected regions like national parks and lands inhabited by Indigenous Peoples.
* Indigenous Peoples, who make up only 5% of the world’s population, are the guardians to 80% of the world’s biodiversity.

Belo Monte Dam Case Study: Brazil
* Brazil, a major leader in hydro-electricity production, has been a major target for protests over the construction of the Belo Monte dam.
* The dam, the world’s third largest, has caused significant environmental, social, and economic changes in the Amazon.
* The environmental impact assessment was done after work had already started on the project and without consulting local Indigenous peoples.
* Over 80% of the river’s flow is to be diverted to create the reservoir, flooding 515 km2 of rainforest.
* Between 20,000 and 40,000 Indigenous Peoples have been displaced from their traditional lands and lifestyle.
* The loss of river flow has reduced fish populations, increasing the risk of food insecurity.

Answer 6

The Belo Monte Dam: A Case Study of Itaipu Dam, Paraguay and Brazil

• The Belo Monte dam, a major water infrastructure project in Paraguay and Brazil, has faced criticism for its environmental and social impacts.
• The dam’s construction led to a surge in land prices, increased living costs, and increased crime rates.
• Energy company Norte Energia was fined for failing to provide promised services, including schools and clinics for local communities.
• The dam’s construction led to a shift in traditional subsistence lifestyles, with shopping replacing traditional hunting and fishing, and the introduction of fast food, sweets, and alcohol.
• The government may reverse the suspension of Norte Energia’s permission to divert more water, arguing that hydro-electricity is more important for the economy than environmental and human rights concerns.
• The dam’s management has been criticized for its lack of sustainable practices, including deforestation and unsustainable land clearing, which contribute to water quality and reliable flow.
• Despite these challenges, the dam’s management has introduced restorative programs to provide reliable, clean water and deliver social and environmental benefits to local communities and biodiversity.
• The dam’s initial flooding resulted in an estimated 80% loss in biodiversity around the dam.
• Nature-based strategies have been introduced to ensure the sustainability of their power production, benefiting the environment and communities economically and socially.

Answer 7

Itaipu Restoration Program Management Strategies

• Protecting existing forests: Purchased additional land for protected areas, reducing erosion and providing habitat.
• Reforestation of degraded land: Established a 30-metre-wide green belt along riverbanks, protecting waterways from runoff and erosion.
• Improved land management practices: Encouraged farmers to farm on terraces, using no-till methods, and encouraging organic farming.
• Improving waste management: Implemented a recycling program for paper, plastics, and metals, reducing waste that would end up in landfills or dumped into rivers.

Water Savings

• Traditional water management focuses on exploiting resources rather than conserving them.
• Alternatives to dams include desalinated seawater, recycling grey water, and improving irrigation methods.
• Agriculture: Over 70% of fresh water is used for agriculture, but it is not always used efficiently.
• Urban use: 30% of all clean drinking water is lost through leaking pipes, with the United States losing 8 trillion litres of water each year through deteriorating infrastructure.

Answer 8

Water Efficiency Solutions and Small-Scale Solutions

• Reducing leakage and improving water delivery infrastructure.
• Encouraging the use of water- and energy-efficient appliances and fixtures.
• Changing water pricing to a ‘the more you use, the more you pay’ system.
• Offering incentives to reduce water waste and recycle.
• Harvesting rainwater, collecting rainwater off roofs, and recycling domestic wastewater.
• Small-scale technologies, like rainwater harvesting and micro hydro-dams, can benefit local communities at a minimal cost.
• Large dams are expensive and have lower environmental impacts, so alternatives like rainwater harvesting and micro hydro-dams are being explored.
• Traditional water harvesting in India, where government policies have led to increased mining and clearing, has been encouraged to re-establish traditional water management practices.
• Johads, small earth, concrete or stone ponds, trap rainwater, allowing it to infiltrate the ground and be withdrawn when needed via wells.

Answer 9

Benefits of Groundwater Management in Rajasthan

Environmental Benefits:
* Groundwater has increased from depths of 10 to 120 metres to 3 to 13 metres below the surface.
* Five rivers now flow all year, fed by base flow.
* Revegetation and agroforestry schemes have increased forest cover from 7 to 40%.
* Area under single cropping has increased from 11 to 70%, and under double cropping from 3 to 50%.
* Water is shared among villagers, and farmers are not allowed to use it for water-thirsty crops.

Social Benefits:
* Over 700,000 people across Rajasthan have improved access to water for household and farming use.
* Traditional cultural practices have been revived in constructing and maintaining johads.
* The village council (Gram Sabha) is promoted for community participation and social justice.
* A more reliable water supply makes communities more economically viable.
* Reduction in migration to cities due to the adoption of the johad system.
* Adoption of community management of other resources like forests and woodlands.

Economic Benefits:
* Average cost of renovating or constructing a johad is estimated at 100 rupees.

Water Diversion:
* Water is often transferred or diverted due to uneven distribution of populations and water sources.
* Groundwater has advantages such as being cleaner, less subject to seasonal variation, and requiring less and cheaper infrastructure.
* Unsustainable use of groundwater can lead to watertable drops, hard and expensive pumping, and land subsidence or sinking.

Answer 10

China’s Groundwater Crisis and the South-North Water Transfer Project

China’s Water Shortages
* China’s large freshwater resources are facing serious shortages due to uneven rainfall and population distribution.
* The northern regions receive only 20% of the country’s rainfall, leading to acute water shortages.
* Rapid population growth, irrigated agriculture, and industry led to increased pumping of groundwater in the north, which supplies 70% of water needs for over 100 million people.
* The watertable around Beijing dropped by an average of 5 meters per year due to increased pumping of groundwater.

The South-North Water Transfer Project
* The project diverted over 44.8 billion cubic metres of water per year from the Yangtze River into the Huang He River Basin.
* The project reduced the need to pump 800 million cubic metres of groundwater, but the watertable has started to rise.

Impacts of the Project
* Large-scale changes to natural landscapes and the flow of four major rivers.
* Climate change could bring less rainfall to the south, creating potential conflict over water distribution.
* Loss of biodiversity in rivers and lakes, reduced fish movement, and threat of invasive plant species.
* The construction and flooding of the Danjiangkou dam led to the relocation of over 330,000 people and industries.
* The region around the dam was historically plagued with water-quality problems.

Efforts to Improve Water Quality
* Government introduced strict controls on insecticides and pesticides on farmland, improved wastewater systems, and extensive reforestation.

Answer 10

Water Supply Crisis in China and Iran

Water Supply Crisis in China
* China’s focus on economic growth and large-scale engineering fixes over sustainable water supply methods.
* Overuse and diversion of water are causing the shrinking of many world’s greatest lakes.

Shrinking of Lakes
* Large rivers like the Colorado, Rio Grande, Indus, Ganges, Nile, and Murray discharge very little water into the sea.
* Up to one-third of the world’s major rivers and lakes are drying up, affecting groundwater wells for 3 billion people.

Lake Urmia in Iran
* The largest lake in the Middle East and one of the largest salt lakes in the world, Lake Urmia, has shrunk by nearly 80% since the 1970s.
* The lake was declared a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention in 1971 and a UNESCO biosphere reserve in 1976.

Causes of Lake Urmia’s Decline
* Environmental, economic, political, and social factors have led to the lake’s decline.
* Post-revolution, Iran adopted a policy of food self-sufficiency, replacing traditional drought-tolerant crops with water-thirsty ones.
* Water diversions account for 40% of the lake’s decline, while climatic factors contribute to 60%.

Answer 11

Lake Urmia’s Decline and Impacts

• Increased salinity due to high evaporation and reduced freshwater flow.
• Collapse of the lake’s ecosystem and food chain.
• Loss of habitat due to drying wetlands, resulting in migratory bird population loss.
• Losses of over US$1.6 million (2019) to eco-tourism, recreation, and educational activities.
• Over 400 km2 of exposed lakebed is salty deserts, unable to support native vegetation or food crops.
• Over 6 million tonnes of dust and salt blow in sand storms, damaging farmland and creating health risks.
• Less water available to produce food crops.
• The lake is divided into two by a causeway and bridge, but the bridge is rusting due to highly saline water.
• Three decades of drought contributed to unsustainable groundwater pumping for irrigation water.
• Rapid pumping of groundwater increases salt levels in the soil, affecting soil fertility in food-producing regions.
• The lake’s collapse led to the abandonment of orchards, farms, and villages.
• The Lake Urmia Restoration Program was established in 2013 to rehabilitate the lake.
• New strategies include replacing ‘thirsty’ crops and reforming irrigation practices.
• Construction of a 35-kilometre tunnel to transfer water from the Little Zab river basin in neighboring Iraq is nearing completion.
• Construction of 13 treatment plants to treat wastewater from urban areas and deliver it to the lake.
• Development plan launched in 2017 to reduce consumption of potable water by 30% by 2021 and use desalinated water to meet 30% of South Iran’s water demands.

Answer 12

Lake Restoration Project: A Global and Local Approach

• The $1 billion lake restoration project has been funded by the United Nations Development Program, with contributions from countries like Japan, the Iranian Government, and local communities.
• The project has seen an increase in the lake’s size but still below its water target level.
• The restoration has led to a decrease in agricultural water use and pesticide use by 35% and 40% respectively.
• Concerns exist about the extent of the improvement due to water restoration and heavy rainfalls in 2019 and 2021.
• The destruction of the lake has shifted people’s beliefs towards a more Earth-centered perspective, suggesting that with time and careful management, the lake can be restored.

Understanding Wetlands

• Wetlands are areas covered by water permanently, seasonally, or ephemerally, and can include fresh, salty, and brackish waters.
• They are interconnected with other landscape elements, especially rivers and floodplains.
• Wetlands perform important functions such as purifying water, reducing flood impact, and providing habitat and breeding grounds for 40% of the world’s species.
• Wetlands are the most effective land-based ecosystems for managing climate change, taking up and storing carbon at rates greater than tropical rainforests.
• Improving wetlands management brings health, food, and water security benefits, estimated to be $47.4 trillion a year.

Answer 13

Threats to Wetlands

• Rapid degradation and loss of wetlands, three times faster than forests, between 1970 and 2015.
• Competition from other land uses and increasing populations contribute to the decline.
• Wetlands become fragmented, affecting animal movements and biodiversity.
• Agricultural expansion is the largest contributor to wetland loss and degradation.
• Dams alter seasonal floods and block sediment and nutrient supply.
• Loss of wetlands affects populations and migratory patterns of birds and fish.
• Urban growth, industry, roads, and other land uses replace wetlands with hard surfaces, reducing infiltration and polluting run-off.
• Wetlands are often treated as dumping grounds, leading to algal blooms and eutrophication.
• Climate change is expected to increase wetland degradation and loss.
• Wetlands need careful management for sustainable use.

Answer 14

Wetlands Management and the Ramsar Convention
* The Ramsar Convention is the first international treaty aimed at conserving natural resources.
* It recognizes rare or unique wetlands and conserves biological diversity.
* Ramsar sites are added to the Convention’s List of Wetlands of International Importance.
* Countries sign the convention agree to set up management programs to conserve the wetland.
* Globally, there are 2400 wetlands listed as Ramsar sites, making up 13-18% of the world’s wetlands.
* Australia has 66 Ramsar-listed wetlands, covering an area larger than Tasmania.

Water Overuse in the Murray–Darling Basin
* The Murray–Darling Basin, Australia’s most important inland water body, has been severely affected by overuse of water.
* Over 30 000 wetlands, 16 of which are internationally listed, have been lost due to overuse.
* The basin’s floodplains are now flooded once every 10-12 years, a change from three to four years out of every five a century ago.

Results of Overuse of Water
* The management of the river switched from transport to agriculture, leading to a rise in water withdrawal and a decline in river ecosystem health.
* Factors contributing to this include extensive clearing of native vegetation, introduction of exotic weeds and animals, run-off of pollutants, and draining of wetlands.
* The twenty-first century is working towards a more sustainable approach to managing water, focusing on improving the health of rivers and wetlands and keeping more water in the system.

Answer 15

Water Management Challenges and Value of Wetlands

• Australia, a member of the Ramsar Convention, is tasked with promoting the wise use of all water resources and conservation of declared Ramsar sites.
• Balancing the need for natural river flows with farmers’ water needs and preventing large floods is a challenge.
• In 2019, over 1 million fish were killed in the Menindee Lakes storage system due to poor water quality.
• The lakes are shallow and 20-30% of the water evaporates annually, leading to insufficient water for environmental flow.
• Current water licences are based on the height of a river, limiting water distribution.
• A Royal Commission was held in 2018 to investigate the operations and effectiveness of the Murray–Darling Basin Plan.
• The report highlighted the complexities of balancing environmental, social, and economic needs with a water source that relies on millions of people.
• First Nations Australians value wetlands, acting as ceremonial sites, traditional hunting grounds, and borders between nation groups.
• Both federal and state governments work with First Nations Australians to develop policies and management plans.

Answer 16

Case Study: Gayini Wetland Restoration
* Gayini, a 88 000-hectare property in southern New South Wales, is the largest remaining area of wetland.
* Historically, the area was the homeland of the Nari Nari people for over 60,000 years.
* Post-colonial development, the land was taken from them and developed for farming.
* The state and federal governments purchased the land and handed it back to the Nari Nari people.
* The NSW Government established the Gayini Nimmie-Caira Conservation Area in 2023.
* A land and water management plan was developed to maintain the working farm.
* Management focus strategies include environmental protection, removal of feral animals, creation of a natural flooding pattern, First Nations engagement, protection of over 2000 cultural sites, sustainable development, future education program, and ecotourism development.

Tar-Ru Wetlands Restoration
* The Tar-Ru Wetlands, located on the floodplains of the Murray River and Frenchmans Creek, are crucial for the ecosystem.
* In 2016, a project was initiated to spread nearly 1 billion litres of environmental water across five sites on Tar-Ru Lands.

Answer 17

Project to Increase Waterbird Biodiversity and River Red Gum Health
* Project aimed to boost native waterbird biodiversity, southern bell frog population, and river red gum health.
* Results showed immediate results, with observed bird species doubled and individual bird numbers increased by 250 per cent.
* Two frog species were observed, and new green and aquatic vegetation increased tenfold.
* Tar-Ru Aboriginal Land Managers manage the wetlands, assisting in maintaining aquatic habitat health and environmental monitoring.

Menindee Lakes Fish Kill Mystery
* In summer 2018-19, over one million native fish died in the Menindee Lakes, western New South Wales.
* Lakes are modified to manage floods, provide water for towns and agriculture, and be released for downstream users.
* Controversy exists over water management in the Darling River, particularly between upstream and downstream users.