1. History: Rights and Freedom Flashcards by Dinara Dammika

1924-1943: First Aboriginal Progressive Association (AAPA) Founding
* Fred Maynard founded the Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association (AAPA).
* First Nations Peoples of Australia declared 150th anniversary of settlement a ‘Day of Mourning’.
* First female parliamentarians elected: Dame Enid Lyons and Dorothy Tangey.
* UN adopts Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.
* First Nations Australians included in national census in 1967.
* First Nations women granted right to enrol and vote in federal elections in 1962.
* First Nations workers demand better pay and conditions in 1966.
* 1972: Conciliation and Arbitration Commission acknowledges equal pay for women.
* Mabo case: High Court of Australia recognizes First Nations land ownership.
* 1997: Bringing Them Home report outlines damage to Stolen Generations.
* 2008: Prime Minister Kevin Rudd apologizes to Stolen Generations survivors.
* 2010: Julia Gillard becomes Australia’s first female Prime Minister.
* 2017: ‘Uluru Statement’ developed by 250 delegates.
* 2016: Linda Burney elected first First Nations Australian woman to the House of Representatives.

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Human Rights in Australia

Human rights are inherent to all, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, etc.
Rights include life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and expression, work and education.
Australia has experienced social and political changes throughout the 20th century, including for women and First Nations Peoples.
Despite improvements, the struggle for these rights is ongoing.
The ‘Wiyi Yani U Thangani (Women’s Voices): Securing Our Rights, Securing Our Future 2020’ report by the Australian Human Rights Commission highlights this issue.

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1938 First Fleet Arrival Celebration in Australia
* White Australia prepares for 150th anniversary.
* First Nations Australians protest.

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Protests in the 1920s: First Nations Australian Political Organisations

Captain James Cook’s claim of Australia’s east coast in 1770 led to no treaty with First Nations Peoples of Australia.
The arrival of the First Fleet in Sydney Cove in 1788 marked the beginning of settlement.
First Nations Australian political organizations formed in the 1920s, including the Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association (AAPA).
AAPA aimed for self-determination, land rights, and an end to forced removal of children from families.
Public attention gained through street rallies, meetings, letter-writing campaigns, and petitions.
The Association disbanded in late 1927 due to a campaign by the New South Wales Aboriginal Protection Board.
In 1937, the Aborigines Progressive Association (APA) was formed with three main aims: full citizenship rights, representation in parliament, and abolition of the New South Wales Aboriginal Protection Board.
Australia Day 1938 became a focus for the newly formed APA, marking a day of mourning for First Nations Australians.

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Building a Movement for Aboriginal Rights and Freedoms

Building a Movement
* Jack Patten, the first president of the APA, and William Cooper, secretary for the Australian Aborigines League, visited missions and reserves to gain support for the Day of Mourning protest.
* Patten and William Ferguson, founder of the APA, created a document entitled ‘Aborigines claim citizenship rights’, which ran in national newspapers.
* Despite widespread support, only about 100 people attended the protest due to Australian law prohibiting First Nations Australians from gathering to protest.

Results of the Day of Mourning
* Jack Patten read a resolution expressing the Aborigines’ protest against the callous treatment of their people and the need for full citizen status and equality.
* The protest resulted in the formation and approval of a ten-point plan for equality, including full citizenship status, access to education, health services, employment, property ownership, bank accounts, and pensions.
* The day ended with members walking to La Perouse, one of the original landing spots for the First Fleet, where they released funeral wreaths into the sea.

Protests and the National Aborigines Day Observance Committee
* Following the success of the Day of Mourning protest, a delegation of 20 people presented the plan to the Australian Prime Minister, Joseph Lyons.
* From 1940 to 1955, many churches dedicated the Sunday before Australia Day to ‘Aborigines Day’.
* In 1957, Aborigines Day was shifted to the first Sunday in July, with the focus expanded to a celebration of First Nations Peoples’ cultures.

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Stolen Generations Experience and Government Policy in Australia

The Stolen Generations were children forcibly removed from their families for protection.
These girls lived at the Cootamundra Domestic Training Home for Aboriginal Girls, where they were taught domestic work.
The Aborigines Protection Act (NSW) 1909 allowed the government to provide for the custody, maintenance, and education of aborigines’ children.
The Board for Protection was given control over First Nations Australians, making it the legal guardian of all First Nations Australian children.
The government believed that the best way to ensure First Nations Australian children were assimilated into European society was to remove them forcibly and raise them in institutions or foster homes.
The NSW Child Welfare Act 1939 provided parents with the right to contest the removal of their children, but often they had no choice in their removal.
After their removal, many First Nations Australian children were abused and exploited for labor, and denied any contact with their families or connection to their Country, culture, or language.
Between 1910 and 1970, it is estimated that 10 to 30 per cent of First Nations Australian children were forcibly removed from their families in the name of protection and assimilation.

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Case Study: Kinchela Boys Home and Cootamundra Domestic Training Home

Kinchela Boys Home:
* Taught First Nations Australian boys farming and operating heavy machinery.
* Around 600 boys were taken between 1924 and 1970.
* Boys were stripped of names, given numbers, and punished for disobedience.
* The most brutal punishment was ‘down the line’.

Cootamundra Domestic Training Home for Aboriginal Girls:
* Served First Nations Australian girls removed from families between 1911 and 1969.
* Girls worked as domestic servants in middle-class homes and farms.
* Many girls became pregnant, only to have their children removed and placed with white families.

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International Call for Civil Rights

The 1940s saw inequity and mistreatment in colonized nations like the United States and Australia.
The mid 1950s saw leaders challenge this inequity and initiated the civil rights movement.
The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948, outlining rights and freedoms for all people.
Australia played a key role in establishing the Declaration under Dr. Herbert Vere Evatt, who was known for defending civil liberties.
The Declaration recognized the inherent dignity and equal rights of all human family members as the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace.
Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady of the United States, played a crucial role in developing the UDHR.
Human rights begin in small places, where every person seeks equal justice, opportunity, and dignity without discrimination.

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Civil Rights in America: Desegregation and the Montgomery Bus Boycott

Rosa Parks’s Defiance and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
* Rosa Parks, an African-American seamstress, refused to stand in a bus reserved for white passengers in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1955.
* Parks was arrested and charged with breaking segregation laws.
* The African-American community, who made up the majority of Montgomery’s bus passengers, began a 381-day boycott against the segregation laws.

Racism and the Role of Treaties
* Racism is based on the belief that race determines an individual’s ability and attributes, and that some people are inherently inferior.
* The same theories were used to justify racial segregation in the United States, South Africa, and Australia.

Desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas
* The US Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional on 17 May 1954.
* The Little Rock, Arkansas school board agreed to gradually desegregate its schools in 1957.

The Impact of the School Year
* Minnijean Brown-Trickey, an African-American student, experienced verbal abuse and was beaten up by white students.
* Her story inspired a generation of African-Americans to choose between being part of the mob attacking children or walking with dignity.

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Civil Rights Movement in the U.S.

The civil rights movement in the U.S., especially in southern states, saw potential for violence.
Martin Luther King Jr., a charismatic civil rights campaigner, led the Montgomery bus boycott.
King’s philosophy was based on non-violent resistance, as long as enough people joined the cause.
His philosophy was influenced by Mohandas Gandhi’s non-violent protests in India.
King’s famous speech, “I have a dream…,” was delivered during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1963).

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Freedom Rides in the US
* Started in May 1961, with 13 activists from CORE and SNCC.
* Journeyed from Washington DC to southern states, including Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Missouri.
* Often met violent, hateful responses from white mobs.
* In Anniston, Alabama, a mob smashed windows, tyres, and firebombed the bus, causing severe injuries.
* Violence continued over subsequent rides, with little intervention from state authorities.

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Martin Luther King’s Role in Freedom Riders Campaign
* King became a key spokesperson for the Freedom Riders.
* A 3000-strong mob blockaded the First Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama.
* US Attorney-General Robert Kennedy mobilized the National Guard to disperse the mob with tear gas.

Results of Freedom Rides
* The Freedom Rides gained international media attention, embarrassing the US government.
* Despite federal laws against segregation, state administrations ignored them.
* The Freedom Rides continued until the ICC forced bus companies to introduce desegregation.
* Campaign goals were achieved, with civil disobedience being a powerful protest against racist policies.

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Charles Perkins: An Activism Pioneer

Charles Perkins, a young Arrernte and Kalkadoon man, was a key figure in the fight for First Nations Australians’ rights.
Despite winning the right to vote in federal elections in 1962, First Nations Australians were not included in the census and their affairs were managed by state governments.
Inspired by civil rights action in the United States, Charles Perkins organized the Freedom Ride of 1965, a bus tour of outback New South Wales.
The Freedom Riders witnessed the desperate poverty and unsanitary living conditions of First Nations Australians and witnessed racial discrimination.
Despite physical tolls, the Freedom Ride was a significant success, attracting national and international media attention and forcing Australians to confront racial tensions and inequity.
Perkins later wrote that the trip stirred Aboriginal people’s imagination and desire for human rights.

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Legacy of the Freedom Ride
* The Freedom Ride led to media attention and debate on racism faced by First Nations Peoples of Australia.
* This attention aided the campaign for discrimination removal in the Australian Constitution, culminating in the 1967 Referendum.
* Charles Perkins became a national leader for First Nations Australians and a role model for non-violent prosecution.
* The Freedom Ride was a significant event in the fight for civil rights and freedoms, inspiring numerous further ‘freedom rides’.
* In 2005, on the fortieth anniversary of Perkins’s Freedom Ride, a bus set out again, supported by reconciliACTION, to investigate Australia’s progress in improving race relations since 1965.
* Charles Perkins is remembered today, with crowds of supporters and mourners gathering at his funeral in 2000.

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Civil Rights in America: Desegregation and the Montgomery Bus Boycott

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First Nations Australian Voting Rights History

1961: Parliamentary panel recommends First Nations voting in federal elections.
1962: Commonwealth Electoral Act amended, allowing First Nations to vote.
1962: Right to vote in state/territory elections in NT and WA.
1971: Voting in state elections compulsory for First Nations Australians.

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Transition from Assimilation to Integration in Australia

Institutional discrimination softened after First Nations Australians gained voting rights and census count.
Shift from ‘assimilation’ to ‘integration’ was driven by new migrants seeking a balance between honoring traditional beliefs and adopting Australian lifestyle.
Integration policy did not require denying cultural background, including language, to become a valuable member of society.
Integration policy, like assimilation, did not recognize the true value of other cultures.
The 1967 referendum result was seen as liberating, but it did not fully address the issue of citizenship.
The referendum result made it possible for Aboriginal people to fight other fights, not just for recognition as Australian citizens.

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Torres Strait Islander Community in Australia

Origins, History, and Cultures of Torres Strait Islander Peoples
* Torres Strait Islander Peoples are distinct from Aboriginal Australians.
* Traditionally lived on over 100 islands of the Torres Strait, close to New Guinea.
* The islands became part of Queensland in 1879.

Population and Identity
* In the 2021 census, 3.2 per cent of Australia’s population identified as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander.
* 4.4% reported being of both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander origin, 4.2% Torres Strait Islander origin only, and 91.4% identifying as Aboriginal.

Flag of the Torres Strait Islands
* The flag features a Dhari, a ceremonial headdress symbolizing Torres Strait Islander Peoples.
* In 1995, the federal government proclaimed the flag as a ‘Flag of Australia’.

Struggles for Recognition and Rights
* From 1897, Torres Strait Islander Peoples were subject to the Queensland Aboriginals Protection Act and the Sale of Opium Act.
* Reserves were established from 1912, and a curfew and pass system controlled their lives.
* The Torres Strait Islanders Act 1939 recognized them as a separate people.

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World War II Discrimination and Voting Rights for Torres Strait Islander People

Over 700 Torres Strait Islander People served in the Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion during WWII.
They were paid one-third the European rate and received no family allowance.
The pay rate was raised to two-thirds the European rate but full repatriation benefits were lowered by a third.
The federal government repaid the full amount to those who had served in 1983.
In 2015, Australia’s Prime Minister Tony Abbott awarded medals to three surviving Torres Strait Islander war veterans.
Torres Strait Islander Peoples were denied voting rights until the Commonwealth Electoral Amendment Act in 1962.
They played an active role in national campaigns and organizations, particularly in the lead-up to the 1967 Referendum.
The Torres Strait Regional Authority (TSRA) was established on 1 July 1994 to address issues relevant to their cultures and religion.
The Authority administers a Torres Strait repatriation assistance to ex-service men and women returning to a civilian way of life.

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Yirrkala Bark Petitions and Land Rights Movement

Captain James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia as terra nullius in 1770, believing it belonged to no-one.
The Yolngu people from Yirrkala, in the Northern Territory, sent a bark petition in 1963 protesting the government’s decision to allow a mining company to mine bauxite on their traditional lands.
The Yolngu lodged a challenge in the Northern Territory Supreme Court in 1968, leading to a ruling that British law replaced Yolngu law and their longstanding association with the land after 1788.
This decision angered many First Nations Australians, who had raised expectations from the 1967 referendum.
Prime Minister William McMahon declared on Australia Day 1972 that ‘land rights would threaten the tenure of every Australian’.

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Aboriginal Tent Embassy: A Historical Perspective

In 1972, First Nations Australian activists erected a beach umbrella outside Parliament House, accompanied by a sign reading ‘Aboriginal Embassy’.
The tents and activists aimed to assert their right to occupy their traditional lands and connect with the country.
The Tent Embassy gained media attention and controversy, demonstrating the desire for First Nations Australians to move beyond assimilation and integration policies.
The Tent Embassy remains significant for First Nations Australians today, active in issues such as land rights and deaths in custody.
The embassy flew the Aboriginal flag, designed by Luritja man and artist Harold Thomas.
The Tent Embassy became a symbol of the worldwide struggle for civil rights, with national and international press covering it.
Placards served as a constant reminder of the group’s fight.

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Wave Hill Walk-off: First Successful Land Rights Case in Australia

The Wave Hill cattle station, owned by Lord Vestey, was owned by Gurindji, Mudburra, and Warlpiri workers since 1914.
Workers complained of low pay, disrespectful treatment, and poor living conditions.
On 23 August 1966, around 200 workers walked off the property, moving to Daguragu, a culturally significant area.
The government offered the workers a raise in wages and new houses at Wave Hill, but the protesters refused, insisting on equal wages to white employees.
The walk-off became a struggle for better working conditions and ownership of traditional lands.
The walk-off spread quickly within First Nations Australian communities, leading to strikes and protests across the Northern Territory in 1966 and 1967.
Australian author Frank Hardy arranged press conferences and lobbied politicians to bring the plight of the Gurindji people to their attention.

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Australian Community Support for Gurindji Land Takeover
* National press endorsed action, with some even visiting Wave Hill.
* Gurindji people’s cry for land redressed.
* Prime Minister Gough Whitlam returned 3300 square kilometers of traditional lands on 16 August 1975.
* Whitlam acknowledged ongoing injustice and oppression faced by Black Australians.
* Whitlam ceremonially bought back Gurindji lands, stating they had taken their country.

Land Rights and Native Title Movements in Torres Strait Islands

Significant decision on land rights and native title in the Torres Strait Islands in the 1970s.
Queensland Government indicated Torres Strait Islanders were not legal owners of their traditional lands.
In 1982, Mer Island people challenged the government’s right to prevent them from using their lands.
The group, led by Eddie Koiki Mabo, appealed to the Queensland Supreme Court.
The High Court of Australia made a historic ruling in June 1992, recognizing the Meriam people as legal owners of their lands.

World War II Discrimination and Voting Rights for Torres Strait Islander People

Over 700 Torres Strait Islander People served in the Torres Strait Light Infantry Battalion during WWII.
They were paid one-third the European rate and received no family allowance.
The pay rate was raised to two-thirds the European rate but full repatriation benefits were lowered by a third.
The federal government repaid the full amount to those who had served in 1983.
In 2015, Australia’s Prime Minister Tony Abbott awarded medals to three surviving Torres Strait Islander war veterans.
Torres Strait Islander Peoples were denied voting rights until the Commonwealth Electoral Amendment Act in 1962.
They played an active role in national campaigns and organizations, particularly in the lead-up to the 1967 Referendum.
The Torres Strait Regional Authority (TSRA) was established on 1 July 1994 to address issues relevant to their cultures and religion.
The Authority administers a Torres Strait repatriation assistance to ex-service men and women returning to a civilian way of life.

Eddie Mabo: A Pioneer in Australian Land Rights
* Born on Mer Island in 1936, with no formal education beyond primary school.
* Rich in cultural knowledge, understanding of his people’s law and lore.
* Politically active in the 1970s, emphasized native title importance.
* Exposure to leading minds at a 1981 conference at James Cook University.
* Launched landmark land rights case in 1982, gaining support from many.
* Persisted fighting for land rights until his death a decade later.

Native Title in Australia: Mabo Decision and Native Title Act 1993
* The Mabo decision acknowledged native title under First Nations Peoples of Australia’s customary law.
* The Native Title Act 1993 clarified the law and provided legal means for future land rights claims.
* First Nations Australians needed to prove a ‘traditional connection’ with the land since 1788.
* The Act required applicants to apply to the Native Title Tribunal, which negotiated claims with First Nations Australian representative bodies, land councils, and mining companies.

Wik Peoples vs Queensland Case
* The High Court ruled that a pastoral lease does not necessarily extinguish native title.
* Native title rights could coexist with pastoral leases, but First Nations Australian rights would prevail if conflicts arose.
* This decision was a significant blow to the Wik people and other First Nations Australian groups seeking land rights.

Pauline Hanson’s Call for Land Rights Revocation
* Pauline Hanson, a conservative politician, was elected to the Queensland seat of Oxley in the 1996 federal election.
* Hanson criticized the unfair granting of land to people under native title, arguing that the system encourages division.
* She expressed frustration with the system’s system of dividing the nation into black and white.

The Native Title Amendment Act 1998
* Prime Minister John Howard proposed a plan to alter the Native Title Act, aiming to extinguish more native title claims.
* Labor, Greens, and Democrats argued for a softened plan, with Independent Senator Brian Harradine’s support.

The Native Title Tribunal
* In 1998, the Tribunal was given responsibility to negotiate Indigenous Land Use Agreements (ILUAs), which allowed use of the land based on mutually beneficial terms.

Reconciliation Perspectives on Australia’s First Nations Australians

Reconciliation is a series of special moments that heal the hurt, especially when it involves two groups separated by a long history of injustice.
In 1991, the federal parliament passed the Council for Reconciliation Act, forming the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation.
Labor Prime Minister Paul Keating’s Redfern Speech in 1992 was a significant step towards reconciliation between Australia’s First Nations Australians and other Australians.
The report titled “Bringing Them Home” outlined the process of separating Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families.
The report revealed the mistreatment of First Nations Australian children and their families by the Aborigines Welfare Board and the ongoing effects of forced removal on the Stolen Generations.
The report was declared National Sorry Day on 26 May, and many of the 54 recommendations remain outstanding.

Refusing to Apologize to Stolen Generations

State and territory governments and churches publicly apologized to the Stolen Generations after Bringing Them Home release.
Federal government, led by Prime Minister John Howard, refused to apologize due to fear of a surge in compensation claims and reluctance of many Australians to accept moral responsibility for past acts.
Howard argued that many Australians would refuse to accept responsibility for past events, preventing reconciliation.
Sir William Deane, a former High Court judge, emphasized the need for reconciliation between the Australian nation and its Indigenous Peoples.
Deane argued that national shame and pride can exist in relation to past acts and omissions, especially when done in the name of the community or with government authority.
The ‘three cheers’ view of history viewed the arrival of white people as the beginning of civilisation, while the ‘black armband’ view saw it as a brutal invasion.
The Stolen Generations view viewed the removal of First Nations Australian children as an attempt to eradicate their cultures and languages.

Australia Apology to First Nations Australians

In 2007, Kevin Rudd became the federal Labor Party leader, promising to be a ‘prime minister for all Australians’.
Plans were made to offer a formal apology to First Nations Australians.
The first ‘Welcome to Country’ ceremony was held at Parliament House, with Matilda House-Williams, a Ngambri Elder, welcoming both the prime minister and Opposition leader.
On 13 February 2008, Prime Minister Rudd acknowledged the harm caused to the First Nations People of Australia and the unfairness of past government policies.
He pledged never to allow such injustice to occur again and encouraged collaboration to ‘close the gap’ between First Nations Australians and other Australians.
The apology received a standing ovation, but only one word was heard - ‘Sorry’.
Opposition leader Dr Brendan Nelson reiterated his party’s position, stating that the generation does not own these actions.
First Nations Australian leader Pat Dodson described the apology as a’seminal moment in the nation’s history’.
John Moriarty, a successful businessman, criticized the apology for not addressing the root cause of the issue.

Prime Minister Kevin Rudd’s Apology to Stolen Generations

Prime Minister Rudd’s formal apology to Stolen Generations in February 2008 is a significant moment in the reconciliation struggle.
Rudd apologies for past mistreatment of Indigenous Peoples, particularly the Stolen Generations.
He calls for a new chapter in Australia’s history by righting past wrongs and moving forward confidently.
Rudd apologizes for laws and policies that caused profound grief and loss on Stolen Generations.
He apologizes for the removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families and communities.
Rudd apologizes for the pain, suffering, and hurt of Stolen Generations, their descendants, and their families left behind.
He requests the Parliament of Australia to receive the apology as part of the healing of the nation.
Rudd aims for a future where injustices of the past must never happen again.
He envisions a future where all Australians, regardless of origin, are equal partners with equal opportunities and a stake in shaping the next chapter in Australia’s history.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner Tom Calma Apologizes for Stolen Generations
* Calma, representing the National Sorry Day Committee and Stolen Generations Alliance, expresses his family’s struggle to find information about his great-grandmother.
* Link Up in Darwin found information about his great-grandmother in a document from 1899.
* Calma argues that the issue is not about black armbands and guilt, but about belonging.

Northern Territory National Emergency Response

First Nations Australians lost their land and culture to European colonizers in 1788.
Over 150 years, they faced injustice, racism, and denial of civil and human rights.
The 2007 Northern Territory Emergency Response intervened in their lives, restricting their rights and freedoms.
The Howard government suspended the Racial Discrimination Act and announced emergency measures to protect Indigenous children.
The intervention included sending soldiers and police, banning alcohol, and restricting social welfare spending.
Supporters argued the strict measures were necessary to protect children, while others argued it was a racist policy.
The intervention’s worth remains divided, with many Elders and other Australians disliking the lack of consultation with First Nations Australians.

Aboriginal People’s Dispossession and Retaliation

Aboriginal people of the Northern Territory, Australia, have been a natural farmer for over 40,000 years.
They are now facing dispossession and fear, with their rights being lost under the intervention.
The intervention has removed control over their communities and lives, leaving them with nothing.
The legislation under which they live does not comply with international law and is discriminatory.
The intervention has led to a failure of democratic processes, failure to consult with them, and total disregard for them as human beings.
The people demand the return of their rights, freedom to live traditional lives, support for economic enterprises, job development, and a better future for all their peoples.
Some First Nations Australian commentators and activists have given conditional support to the policy, citing its benefits for women and children against a ‘wrong-headed Aboriginal male ideology’.
Central Australian Elder Bess Price supports the intervention, citing progress and the feeding of children and better management of young people.
Cape York leader Noel Pearson agrees with the emphasis on grog and policing and attaching conditions to welfare payments, but is concerned that responsible individuals should continue to exercise their freedoms and decisions.

Closing the Gap: A New Partnership for Indigenous Australians

In 2008, the Australian government and Opposition committed to closing the health and life expectancy gap between First Nations Australians and other Australians by 2030.
The 2019 Closing the Gap report revealed mixed progress towards these targets, with First Nations Australians living in remote areas showing poor health outcomes.
In 2019, the Council of Australian Governments (GOAG) formed the Joint Council on Closing the Gap with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peak Organisations to develop solutions for closing the gap.
The partnership aims to close the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians on life expectancy, educational achievement, and employment opportunities.
The partnership sets concrete targets for the future, including halving the gap in literacy, numberacy, and employment outcomes for Indigenous children, halving the gap in infant mortality rates, and closing the 17-year life gap.
Life expectancy for First Nations Australian men and women is estimated to be 71.6 and 75.6, respectively.
Despite a decrease in mortality rates from chronic and circulatory diseases, cancer mortality rates are rising.
The target to halve the infant mortality rate among the First Nations Australian population by 2018 was not achieved.

Education and Employment Progress for First Nations Australians

Improvement in reading and numeracy standards among children between 2008 and 2017.
Lower school attendance for First Nations Australian students in Year 10 at 73% compared to 90% for non-Indigenous students.
An increasing proportion of First Nations Australian students are completing Year 12 or its equivalent across all states and territories.
In very remote areas, First Nations Australians’ rate of attainment increased from 23% in 2006 to 43% in 2016.
The overall retention rate was 59.8%, compared to 85.5% for non-Indigenous Australians.
In 2017, this increased again to 62.4% for First Nations Australians compared to 86% for the other Australian population.
The target to halve the gap in employment by 2018 was not met, with the employment rate showing no improvement.
The gap between First Nations Australians and other Australians widening by 1.5 per cent between 2008 and 2018.
The federal and state governments of Australia must work in partnership with First Nations Australian bodies and other organizations and communities to effect change.

The Global Struggle for Indigenous Recognition
* The New Zealand government supported the Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 2010, receiving support from 2000 Indigenous delegates.
* The struggle for First Nations Peoples of Australia continues, with major inequities between First Nations Australians and other Australians.
* Despite successes, barriers still impact First Nations Australians’ participation in society.

First Nations Population in Australia
* Australia’s First Nations population is projected to increase by over one-third to 907 800 and 945 600 people by 2026.
* The proportion of First Nations Australian children aged 0–14 years is projected to decline from 36% in 2011 to 31% in 2026.
* The proportion of persons aged 65 years and over is projected to increase from 3% to 7%.

Definition of First Nations Australian

Growing Up as a Light-Skinned First Nations Australian
* Author Nicole Watson, a light-skinned First Nations Australian, reflects on her upbringing and identity.
* She identifies as a Birri Gubba People from central Queensland, despite living in Sydney.
* Watson’s light features and Aboriginal identity were a bequest from her European Australian mother and her friendly Aboriginal father.
* Watson’s identity is often questioned by strangers, questioning the choices and love made for her.
* Watson questions the motivations behind the discrimination of Andrew Bolt, a journalist who criticizes people who appear Caucasian but identify primarily as Indigenous.
* The number of people who identified as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander on the national census rose from 351 000 to 517 000 between 1991 and 2001.
* The United Nations has taken a more active interest in supporting the rights and freedoms of Indigenous Peoples, with agreements like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD).
* The Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in 2007 officially recognized self-determination as a basic right for Indigenous Peoples.

Australian Human Rights Critiques of Racial Discrimination Act
* Australians for Native Title and Reconciliation (ANTaR) criticized the suspension of the Racial Discrimination Act, arguing it could have protected children.
* Concerns remained about the government’s’special measures’ to protect communities.
* Northern Territory First Nations leaders met with the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights in 2011 to express their views on discrimination.
* The Rudd and Gillard governments introduced the Stronger Futures in the Northern Territory Act 2012, aimed at controlling First Nations Australians’ alcohol and money use.
* The Act was criticized for not considering the principles of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, particularly self-determination.
First Nations Australian Congress: A Private, Not-for-Profit Organization
* The Congress is a private, not-for-profit organization representing First Nations Australians.
* It is a platform for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to take control and set the agenda.
* The Congress was praised by national First Nations Australian leaders and international organizations like the United Nations and Amnesty International.

Next Steps to Recognition in the Australian Constitution
* The Australian government committed to working towards the recognition of First Nations Australians in the Australian Constitution.
* An expert panel consulted extensively across Australia, reporting their recommendations to the prime minister in January 2012.
* A Referendum Council was established in 2015 to lead a national discussion on achieving this recognition.

Uluru Statement from the Heart
* In May 2017, representatives of First Nations Australians met in central Australia to discuss the 50th anniversary of the 1967 Referendum.

Uluru Statement from the Heart: A Call for First Nations Australian Voice

In May 2017, over 250 First Nations Australian leaders met at Uluru to discuss the 50th anniversary of the 1967 Referendum.
The First Nations National Constitutional Convention emerged with the ‘Uluru Statement from the Heart’, calling for a First Nations Australian voice in the constitution.
The statement also proposed a ‘Makarrata Commission’ to oversee discussions between government and First Nations Australians.
In 2019, fourteen leading Australian organizations prepared a response to the Uluru Statement, supporting a referendum on enshrining a First Nations Australian voice in the Constitution.
The COVID-19 pandemic halted work on the referendum, and the final form and date for the referendum have not been finalised.
In 2021, Prime Minister Scott Morrison claimed no mainstream support for the move, but the Australian Labor Party pledged to implement the Uluru Statement and establish an Indigenous Voice to Parliament.

Vida Goldstein’s Early Politics in Australia
* Goldstein was a pioneering public office candidate in Australia, prioritizing women’s rights and equality.

Women in Politics: The Suffragettes
* Suffrage, or the right to vote, was a key aspect of the political process in Australia since the late 1800s.
* Women, known as’suffragettes’, were the first to establish an organized movement for women’s rights and equality.

Victorian Women’s Suffrage Society
* Founded in 1884, the society aimed to obtain the same political privileges as male voters.
* The South Australian Parliament passed the Constitutional Amendment (Adult Suffrage) Bill in 1891, allowing women to vote in state elections.

The ‘Monster Petition’
* In 1891, Victoria’s suffragettes presented a’monster petition’ to the state parliament, which was ultimately denied.

Changes in Voting Rights
* New Zealand became the first country to allow women to vote in federal elections in 1893.
* In 1895, women were allowed to vote in South Australia’s state election for the first time.
* In 1902, Australian women finally gained the right to vote in the federal election and stand for federal parliament.

Stereotypical Depictions of Women’s Rights Activists
* Stereotypical depictions of women’s rights activists, such as Vida Goldstein, have been inaccurate since the late 1800s.
* Goldstein, a suffragette, rose through the ranks and became the official representative for Australia and New Zealand at the international suffrage convention in America.
* Her attractiveness and articulateness often perpetuated sexist stereotypes about other women fighting for women’s rights.

Women in Government
* Edith Cowan was the first woman to be voted into an Australian parliament in 1921.
* Dame Enid Lyons became the first woman to be elected to the House of Representatives in 1943.
* Despite her success, Lyons was never given a ministerial office.
* Susan Ryan was the first woman to hold such an office, representing the Labor Party in the Senate in 1975.
* Ryan became Minister for Education and Youth Affairs in 1983 and was instrumental in developing legislation to protect women’s rights.

Australia’s First Female Prime Minister: Julia Gillard
* Julia Gillard became Australia’s first elected female Prime Minister in 2010.
* The election was a result of trailblazing female Australian politicians.
* Gillard’s political career spanned nearly 30 years.
* Media coverage of her election was dominated by sexism, focusing on her fashion and decision not to have children.
* Gillard faced sexism from both outside and inside the chamber until her resignation in 2013.

Julia Gillard’s Journey as Australia’s First Female Prime Minister

Julia Gillard, the first elected female Prime Minister of Australia, was sworn in in a ceremony presided over by the country’s first female Governor-General, Quentin Bryce.
Gillard’s personal life and political career have been a subject of interest and research.
In the 2022 federal election, more women contested seats than ever before, making up 40% of all candidates. This led to the highest-ever number of women being elected to the House of Representatives.
Many of these women were elected as independent candidates, displacing well-established male candidates.
Gillard’s success as a politician and lessons she offers to today’s female politicians are highlighted.
Independent candidate for Kooyong, Monique Ryan, was voted in over Federal Treasurer Josh Frydenberg, who had been tipped to take over leadership of his party.

Women’s Roles Change in Australia

Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex
* Published in 1949, challenged negative assumptions about women’s roles.
* Insisted women were not just the’second sex’ and deserved respect from men.
* The book, translated into English in 1953, sparked discussions about women’s rights.

The Relationship of Man and Woman
* Men and women represent both positive and negative aspects of human beings.
* A man is in the right to be a man, while a woman is in the wrong.

Women’s Drinking in Bars
* In 1965, women were not allowed to drink in the same bars as men.
* Women were forced to socialize in women’s-only lounges attached to the same establishments.
* Queensland women’s rights activists Merle Thornton and Rosalie Bogner chained themselves to the bar at the Regatta Hotel in Brisbane in protest.

Impact of Discrimination
* Women in business missed out on after-work drinks and networking opportunities.
* Their protest led to the repeal of section 59A of the Queensland Liquor Act five years later.

Changing Women’s Magazines
* Popular women’s magazines in Australia catered to a specific type of woman.
* Many Australian women were ready to embrace a different future.

Post-War Fertility Rates and Global Changes
* Fertility rates surged post-war and dropped to historic lows in the 1970s.
* The 20th and early 21st centuries have seen significant changes for various groups, including women.
* Women, once considered second-class citizens, have fought against oppression to improve their lives.
* Key themes include women’s right to participate in the democratic process, equal pay for equal work, access to health services, and protection from domestic and family violence.

Changing Workplace and Women’s Rights in Australia

Women began entering tertiary education and avoiding family life, leading to discussions about women’s rights.
Germaine Greer’s book, The Female Eunuch, became a bestseller, expressing frustrations of these women.
Greer’s book, which became an international bestseller, became a necessary reading for women wanting to join the women’s rights movement.
The book highlighted the isolation of working women, with their horizons shrinking to the house, shopping center, and telly.
Women protested the issues of rights and freedoms during the Sydney International Women’s Day March in 1972.
Post-WWII, women took on positions vacated by men, leading to changes in the workplace.
Strict laws in the public service restricted women’s work, especially for married women.
Women’s rights activists protested against the sex-role concept, which deemed a person’s life and actions determined by their birth sex.

The Evolution of Workplace Equality in Australia

In 1966, a law was passed allowing women in federal public service to retain jobs post-marital.
In 1969, Zelda D’Aprano, a clerk for the Victorian meat workers’ union, chained herself to the Commonwealth Building in Melbourne to protest pay disparities.
D’Aprano’s action led to the meat workers’ industry agreeing to meet the protesters’ demands.
In 1972, the Women’s Electoral Lobby (WEL) was formed to ensure equal value for women’s rights and needs.
In 1984, the Sex Discrimination Act was passed, protecting workers from unfair treatment based on sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, intersex status, marital status, pregnancy, and breastfeeding.
The Act also protects workers with family responsibilities and makes sexual harassment illegal.The Evolution of Workplace Equality in Australia
In 1966, a law was passed allowing women in federal public service to retain jobs post-marital.
In 1969, Zelda D’Aprano, a clerk for the Victorian meat workers’ union, chained herself to the Commonwealth Building in Melbourne to protest pay disparities.
D’Aprano’s action led to the meat workers’ industry agreeing to meet the protesters’ demands.
In 1972, the Women’s Electoral Lobby (WEL) was formed to ensure equal value for women’s rights and needs.
In 1984, the Sex Discrimination Act was passed, protecting workers from unfair treatment based on sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, intersex status, marital status, pregnancy, and breastfeeding.
The Act also protects workers with family responsibilities and makes sexual harassment illegal.

The Final Battleground: A Woman’s Body

Women’s bodies have been a subject of significant debate and angst in the 20th century, particularly in fertility and reproduction.
The decision to keep or terminate a pregnancy was a difficult one, with abortion being illegal and potentially prosecuted.
The Menhennitt ruling in 1969 allowed women to get an abortion if their physical and mental wellbeing was in serious danger.
Today, it is considered a fundamental right for a woman to choose whether to keep or terminate a pregnancy.
The contraceptive pill, available to married Australian women in 1961, allowed them to control when and how they got pregnant.
In 1972, the Women’s Electoral Lobby abolished the luxury tax and made the contraceptive pill widely available, allowing more women to enter the workforce and raise their visibility.

Women’s Rights Movement and Media Representation in Australia

Women’s Rights Movement Progress
* Women now make up over 55% of university students.
* They are more likely to complete their studies than males.
* Post-university, female graduates earn approximately 27% less than male graduates.
* Women are less likely to be promoted to senior positions or sit on major company boards.

Sexism in News Media
* The 2021 ‘Women for Media — Take the Next Steps’ report found gendered representation in media.
* Women write 53% of articles on health and 44% of arts and entertainment, while men write 65% of articles on politics and 87% of sports.
* Women are quoted in articles only 31% of the time.
* Women continue to be under-represented on the boards of major media companies.

Senate Inquiry into Media Diversity in Australia
* In 2020, the Australian Senate established a formal inquiry into media diversity in Australia.
* Anna Rogers, a former News Corp employee, reported on derogatory treatment of women in media.
* The selection of court stories is now based on the subscriber-page-view model at News Corp.

Anna Rogers, a former employee of News Corp, shared her experiences of derogatory treatment of women in media.
Rogers alleged that the Sunday Mail’s social photos policy, which excluded women over 35 and overweight, was derogatory.
The selection of court stories at News Corp is now based on the subscriber-page-view model.
Rogers’ colleagues are advised to ignore charges and focus on attractive women in court, removing their photos from Facebook.

International Struggle for Women’s Rights

Women in developing nations face similar challenges as Australian women, including limited access to health, education, and employment services, exclusion and discrimination, lack of empowerment, and maternal health issues.
Women may be trafficked for prostitution or forced to work in unsafe conditions.
Wartime rape and death of a husband can lead to poverty.
Australian women have been fighting for women’s rights since the UN’s early days.
Australian women are active in governmental and non-governmental organizations like Amnesty International, Oxfam, and Vision Australia.
The Melbourne-based International Women’s Development Agency (IWDA) aims to improve women’s lives in developing communities.

Australian Women’s Violence and Safety

In 2015, the Australian government declared violence against women a national crisis.
Violence against women can take various forms, including domestic violence, family violence, intimate partner violence, coercive control, workplace sexual harassment, street harassment, and sexual assault.
Australian women are active in organizations like Amnesty International, supporting women’s rights.
Data shows one in three women has been a victim of physical assault, one in five has been a victim of sexual assault, and one in two has experienced sexual harassment.
Young women and First Nations Australian women are at higher risk of physical violence.
The most extreme form of violence is when a woman is killed, with approximately one woman murdered each week in Australia.
The 2018 murder of comedian Eurydice Dixon sparked debate about women’s responsibility for their own safety.

Victorian Minister for Women’s Opinion on Eurydice Dixon’s Murder

Natalie Hutchins expresses frustration with the sexism prevalent in Australia, citing the need for increased awareness and action.
Women are urged to resist the idea that gender-based violence isn’t a problem, and to ensure their safety.
Hutchins emphasizes the need for a culture of sexism, stating that it can be overcome.
The federal government and state and territory governments share responsibility for responding to family and child abuse, with most responsibility being taken by states and territories.
The Attorneys-General and the Family Violence Working Group have drafted national principles on dealing with coercive control, a form of gender-based violence.

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