13 - Motor Learning Flashcards
Observational learning
- imitative learning that occurs by observing expert role models (visually or acoustically)
- contrasted with trial-and-error learning
Supervised vs. unsupervised learning
- unsupervised learning (implicit) = learning through observation alone
- supervised learning (explicit) = learning by instruction with a teacher; can be demonstrational or non-demonstrational
Observational practice
- observational practice occurs in the absence of physical practice
- do not confuse observational learning with observational practice
Practice schedules
- one task = constant practice
- two or more tasks = variable practice; blocked practice; serial practice; random practice
- variability of practice is also called contextual interference = interference created by practicing more than one task within the same session
Phases of a learning study
- acquisition (learning, encoding)
- retention/recall (memory) = immediate, delayed
Testing effect
- giving people a retrieval test during or after acquisition can lead to memory enhancements during recall testing
- but the effect is selective (retrieval benefit, RIF)
Wulf - Feedback
- provides a knowledge of results (KR)
- can be intrinsic (self-feedback) or augmented (external, from a person or device)
- can be concurrent or delayed
- can vary in frequency (how often) and timing (during or after performing)
Wulf - Feedback results
Frequency
- reduced feedback enhances learning
- more complex tasks might require more frequent feedback
Timing
- concurrent feedback may temporarily enhance performance, but it has little to no long-term effect
- delaying feedback allows learners to first use intrinsic feedback
Wulf - Task order
- blocked practice is the standard mode of practice in the performing arts
- random practice involves contextual interference
Wulf - Task order results
- random practice = people perform worse during the acquisition phase but better during retention testing
- applies mainly to simple tasks
Explanations
- elaboration = random practice promotes the use of multiple and variable information-processing strategies
- reconstruction = interference leads to (partial) forgetting of the motor program
Wulf - Observational practice
- allows learners to obtain a big picture of the task to be learned, supporting planning
- allows them to chunk information and facilitate information encoding
Wulf - Observational practice results
- both > physical > observational > none
- both experts and competent novices as role models (recognize errors)
- dyad practice = one learner practices while other observes; more effective in retention tests
Wulf - Focus of attention
- internal focus = directing attention to one’s movements
- external focus = directing attention to the effects of one’s movements on the environment
Wulf - Focus of attention results
- strong advantage of external focus over internal focus
- advantage of external focus = enhancement of automaticity, utilizing unconscious and automatic processes, increasing efficiency
Tempel - Study
- retrieval practice can cause retrieval-induced forgetting
- study to see if RIF occurs in complex motor tasks (dance sequences)
- novice participants
Tempel - DV
- number of correctly recalled dance steps (out of 8)
- two scoring methods = conservative (corresponded to displayed name), liberal (corresponded to any of the figures)
Tempel - Experiment 1
- IV = type of practice (between-subject); retrieval practice, no retrieval practice
- 4 salsa dances
- learning phase = no music (description), no music (counting), no music (counting + fast), music (counting)
- retrieval practice = recall 2 of the learned dances
- distractor task
- final recall = recall all 4 dances; non-RP dances done first
Tempel - Experiment 1 results
- more steps of the tested items in the RP group were recalled (retrieval benefit)
- fewer steps of the non-tested items in the RP group were recalled (RIF)
Tempel - Experiment 2
- 2 categories = 2 dances for salsa, 2 dances for Kizomba
- IV = type of practice (within-subject); retrieval practice, no retrieval practice
- learning phase
- retrieval practice = recall 1 of the learned dances of 1 category
- distractor task
- final recall = items within a category done in succession; non-practiced dance before practiced
Tempel - Experiment 2 results
- retrieval-practiced dance was better recalled than control
- non-practiced dance belonging to the same category as the practiced dance was recalled worse than control (RIF)
- the fact that it is worse suggests a categorical organization
Tempel - Experiment 3
- IV = type of practice (within-subject); restudy, no restudy
- same procedure of Experiment 2
Tempel - Experiment 3 results
- restudied items were better recalled than control
- non-restudied items in the same category showed a benefit
- RIF seems to be due to inhibitory processes related to competitive retrieval-practice of selected items