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Biology Higher Level > 11.1 > Flashcards

11.1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Why do every organism have unique molecules on the surface of its cell?

A

For recognition of self and or non-self

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2
Q

What are the unique molecules on the surface of the cells called and how are they recognised?

A

Antigens which are recognised by specific antibodies

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3
Q

What are antibodies and when are they produced?

A
  • They are proteins that attach to the antigens
  • Produced when the white blood cells encounter the antigen
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4
Q

The immune system can only recognise cells as…

A
  1. Self
  2. Non-self
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5
Q

How does your immune system recognise if cells are self or non-self?

A
  • Since all cells in one body have identical DNA, they all produce a particular version of membrane proteins
  • The specific membrane protein = the thing that your immune system recognise as self or non-self
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6
Q

Why is it a problem for one to get the wrong blood type transfusion?

A

If a person got a blood transfusion with the wrong type of red blood cells which means that the blood cell has different membrane proteins on the outside, the immune system will recognise the wrong blood type as non-self and will then start attacking the blood.

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7
Q

Define pathogenesis

A

The manner of development of a disease

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8
Q

Define zoonosis

A

Diseases form animals that can be transmitted to humans
A pathogen which can cross a species barrier

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9
Q

What are the 2 types of white blood cells?

A
  1. Phagocytes
  2. Lymphocytes
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10
Q

What are the 2 types of lymphocytes?

A
  1. B lymphocytes
  2. T lymphocytes
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11
Q

What are macrophages?

A

Macrophages are a type of phagocytes

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12
Q

Describe the stages of the antibody production

A
  1. Macrophage ingests pathogens and destroys antigens from it
  2. Helper T cells specific to the antigen is then activated by the macrophage
  3. B cell specific to the antigen is activated by proteins from the helper T cell
  4. B cell divides repeatedly to produce antibody-secreting plasma cells
  5. B call also divides to produce memory cells
  6. Antibodies produced by the clone of plasma cells are specific to antigens on the pathogen and help to destroy it
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13
Q

What is the role of plasma cells?

A

Plasma cells produces and secretes large number of antibodies during an immune response

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14
Q

What are plasma cells?

A

They are mature B lymphocytes (white blood cells)

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15
Q

What are the 2 types of cells that activated B cells form?

A

Activated B cells multiply to form a clone of
1. Plasma cells; all produce the same antibody type
2. Memory cells

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16
Q

Define colonial selection

A

The generation of large numbers of plasma cells that all produce one specific antibody type

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17
Q

Why does the antibody and plasma cell count gradually drops?

A

After antibodies are secreted and destroyed the pathogens, the number of plasma cells that produces the antibodies gradually decreases because
- After the infection has been overcome
- The antigens associated with it are no longer present

18
Q

What type of cells remains long after the infection has overcame and why?

A

Memory cells
They remain inactive unless the same pathogen infects the body again, in which case they become active and respond very rapidly

19
Q

What are the 2 things that immunity to an infectious disease involves in?

A
  1. Having antibodies against the pathogens
  2. Memory cells that allow rapid production of the antibody
20
Q

What is the role of antibodies?

A

Antibodies aid in the destruction of pathogens

21
Q

How do antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens?
Mnemonic; PANIC

A
  1. Precipitation; Soluble pathogens becomes insoluble and precipitates
  2. Agglutination; Cellular pathogens clumps up into a big blob for easier removal
  3. Neutralisation; Antibodies may occlude pathogenic regions, blocking adhesion of bacteria and docking of viruses to cells
  4. Inflammation; Antibodies may trigger an inflammatory response within the body
  5. Complement activation; Complement proteins perforate membranes (cell lysis)
22
Q

Define opsonisation

A

Making a pathogen more recognisable to phagocytes
- So they are more readily engulfed
- Coating antigen with antibody enhances phagocytosis

23
Q

What is immunity dependent on?

A

Immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells
Immunity to a disease is due to either to
- The presence of antibodies that recognises antigens associated with the disease
- The presence of memory cells that allow production of the antibodies

24
Q

When is immunity developed?

A

Develops when the immune system is challenged by a specific antigen and produces antibodies and memory cells in response

25
Q

How do vaccines lead to immunity?

A

Vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease
Usually introduced into the body by injection
Vaccine contains
- A live attenuated (weakened) version of the pathogen which stimulates a primary immune response

26
Q

Define epidemiology

A

The study of the distribution, patterns and causes of disease in a population

27
Q

What do epidemiologists do?

A

They would be involved in planning and evaluating vaccination programmes

28
Q

Define endemic

A

Native to the area

29
Q

What do white cells release in response to allergens?

A

Histamine

30
Q

What are mast cells and where are they found?

A

They are immune cells found in connective tissues

31
Q

What do mast cells secrete and when do they secret it?

A

They secrete histamine in response to infections

32
Q

What do histamines do to the blood vessels and how does it affect the vessels?

A

Histamine causes
- The dilation of the small blood vessels in the infected area
- Causing the vessels to become leaky

33
Q

If the blood vessels become leaky, what would happen to the infected area?

A

Increases the flow of fluid containing immune components to the infected area
- It allows some of the immune components to leave the blood vessels
- Resulting in both specific and non-specific responses

34
Q

What are the effects of histamine?

A

Histamine causes allergic symptoms which can involve
- In the nose
- In the formation of allergic rashes
- In the dangerous swelling aka anaphylaxis

35
Q

How can one lessen the effects of allergic responses?

A

Anti-histamines can be taken

36
Q

What is the process of creating hybridoma cells?

A

The fusion of a tumour cell with an antibody-producing plasma cell
The B cells are fused with cancer cells called myeloma cells

37
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

They are specific against only one determined antigen
- Highly specific, purified antibodies that are produced by a clone of cells, derived for a single cell
- They recognise only one antigen

38
Q

What is the use of monoclonal antibodies?

A

They are used for both treatment and diagnosis of diseases
Monoclonal antibodies have been used for many disease-detecting kits
e.g.
- Pregnancy tests

39
Q

Describe the production of monoclonal antibodies

A

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells
The desired hybridoma cell is allowed to divide and form a clone
—> These cloned cells can be cultured in a fermenter where they will secrete huge amounts of monoclonal antibodies

40
Q

What do the hybridoma cells do when they are being fermented?

A

The hybridoma cell is multiplied in the fermenter to produce large numbers of genetically identical copies
- Each secreting the antibody produced by the original lymphocyte

41
Q

What do pregnancy tests detect and how?

A

Monoclonal antibodies detect hCG; human chorionic gonadotropin
hCG is uniquely produced during pregnancy by the developing embryo and later in the placenta
Urine of a pregnant woman contains detectable levels of hCG, hence peeing on the stick

Biology Higher Level (50 decks)

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