11 Bio Final Flashcards
1
Q
Biotic
A
Living
2
Q
Abiotic
A
Non-living
3
Q
Population
A
A group of the same species occupying an area at a certain time
4
Q
Community
A
The populations of all species that occupy a habitat
5
Q
Ecosystem
A
A community and it’s physical + chemical environment
6
Q
Biodiversity
A
The number of species in an ecosystem
7
Q
Food chain
A
A sequence linking organisms that feed on each other
8
Q
Producer
A
An autotroph; an organism that makes it’s own food
9
Q
Consumer
A
A heterotroph; an organism that must eat producers or other consumers to survive
10
Q
Indicator species
A
A species sensitive to small changes in environmental conditions
11
Q
Herbivore
A
An animal that eats only plants/producers
12
Q
Carnivore
A
An animal that eats only animals/consumers
13
Q
Omnivore
A
An animal that eats both plants + animals (producers/consumers)
14
Q
Detritus
A
Waste from plants and animals, including dead remains
15
Q
Decomposer
A
A heterotroph; An organism that feeds on detritus
16
Q
Habitat
A
A place or type of environment with conditions suitable for the survival of an organism or population of organisms
17
Q
UV Radiation
A
Ultraviolet radiation; electromagnetic radiation from the sun that can cause sunburn and cellular mutations
18
Q
O3
A
Ozone; an inorganic molecule / / A layer of ozone found in the stratosphere helps to screen out UV rays.
19
Q
Trophic level
A
A category of living things defined by how it gains energy; autotrophs, heterotrophs, etc.
20
Q
Primary consumer
A
An organism that relies directly on autotrophs at the second trophic level
21
Q
Secondary consumer
A
An organism that relies on primary consumers at the third trophic level
22
Q
Food Web
A
A representation of the feeding relationships among organisms in an ecosystem
23
Q
Chemosynthesis
A
The process of non-photosynthetic organisms convert inorganic chemicals to organic compounds without solar energy
24
Q
Chemoautotroph
A
An organism that can use chemosynthesis
25
Biomass
The total dry mass of all the living material in an ecosystem
26
Polar molecule
A molecule that has a positive and negative end
27
Hydrogen bond
The type of bond formed between the positive end of a water molecule and the negative end of another water molecule
28
Transpiration
The loss of water through plant leaves
29
Percolation
The movement of liquid through porous material (soil)
30
Water table
The top level of the region below the ground saturated with water
31
Leaching
The removal of soluble minerals by percolation
32
Carbon cycle
Cycle of matter where carbon atoms move from inorganic to organic form and then back to inorganic.
33
Combustion
Chemical reaction, substance reacts with oxygen to release energy
34
Peat
Slow decomposing plants produced in low-oxygen environment (bogs)
35
Albedo
Term used describing the extent a surface can reflect light that strikes it
36
Nitrogen cycle
A cycle of matter where nitrogen atoms move from gas in the atmosphere to inorganic forms in the soil to organic forms in living things then it goes backwards, organic, inorganic, gas
37
Nitrogen fixation
Two processes in which atmospheric/dissolved nitrogen is converted into nitrate ions
38
Denitrification
The process in which nitrates are converted to nitrites and then to nitrogen gas
39
Fertilizer
A material used to restore nutrients to plants
40
Phosphorous cycle
The cycling of phosphorous between the biotic and abiotic components of the environment; consists of a biological and geochemical cycle
41
Nutrients
Chemicals that are essential to living things
42
Sustainability
The ability to support and/or maintain something for a long period of time
43
Ecology
The study of interactions between organisms and their living and non-living environment
44
Abiotic factor
A non-living factor that influences an organism
45
Biotic factor
A living factor that influences an organism
46
Ecotone
A transition area between ecosystems
47
Ecological niche
An organism’s role in an ecosystem consisting of its place in the food web, its habitat, its breeding area, and the time of day at which it is most active
48
Biome
A large geographical region with a specific range of temperatures and precipitation and the organisms that are adapted to those conditions of temperature and precipitation
49
Major biomes in Canada
* Tundra
* Taiga
* Grassland
* Temperate Deciduous Forest
* Freshwater; lake, river, pond ecosystems
* Marine (salt water); all ocean ecosystems
50
Canopy
The upper layer of vegetation in a forest
51
Permafrost
Permanently frozen soil
52
Muskeg
Soil above permafrost that is swampy or boggy in summer
53
Understorey
Below the canopy layer; usually shrubs and smaller trees
54
Littoral zone
The area from the shore of a lake or pond to the point where no more plants grow in the lake bottom
55
Limnetic zone
The area of a lake or pond in which there is open water and sufficient light for photosynthesis to occur
56
Profundal zone
The region of a lake beneath the limnetic zone, in which there is insufficient light for photosynthesis to occur
57
Plankton
Autotrophic and heterotrophic microorganisms found in the limnetic zone of a lake or pond
58
Epilimnion
The upper level of a lake, which warms up in summer
59
Hypolimnion
The lower level of a lake, which remains at a low temperature year round
60
Thermocline
The zone between the epilimnion and hypolimnion, in which temperature changes rapidly
61
Biotic potential
The maximum number of offspring that a species could produce with unlimited resources
62
Carrying capacity
The maximum number of individuals of a species that can be supported by an ecosystem
63
Law of the minimum
The nutrients in the least supply is the one that limits growth
64
Law of tolerance
An organism can survive within a particular range of an abiotic factor
65
Density-independant factor
A factor in an ecosystem that affects members of a population regardless of population density
66
Density-dependant factor
A factor in an ecosystem that affects members of a population because of the population density
67
Slash-and-burn
The complete clearing of a forest by felling and burning trees (often for agriculture)
68
Clear-cutting
The removal of all trees in an area (often use in timber/pulp)
69
Selective cutting
The harvesting of only certain trees from an area
70
Prescribed burn
A controlled fire set intentionally in a designated area
71
Oligotrophic
Having low nutrient levels
72
Eutrophic
Having high nutrient levels
73
Coliform bacteria
Bacteria that occurs naturally in the intestines of humans and other animals, indicates the presence of fecal contamination in water
74
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by decomposers to completely break down the organic matter in a water sample at 20 ˚C over five days
75
Watershed
The land that drains toward a lake or other body of water
76
Taxonomy
The science of classification according to the inferred relationships among organisms
77
Binomial nomenclature
A method of naming organisms by using two names – the genus name and the species name. Scientific names are italicized
78
Genus
The first part of a binomial name; a genus includes several species
79
Species
A group of organisms that look alike and can interbreed under natural conditions to produce fertile offspring
80
Taxa
Categories used to classify organisms
81
Protista
A kingdom originally proposed for all unicellular organisms such as the amoeba. More recently, multicellular algae have been added
82
Monera
In a five-kingdom system, a kingdom that includes organisms that lack a true nucleus
83
Archaebacteria
In a six-kingdom system, a kingdom consisting of prokaryotic microorganisms distinct from eubacteria that possess a cell wall not containing peptidoglycan and that live in harsh environments such as salt lakes and thermal vents
84
Eubacteria
In a six-kingdom system, a kingdom consisting of prokaryotic microorganisms that possess a peptidoglycan cell wall
85
Phylogeny
The history of the evolution of a species or a group of organisms
86
Dichotomous key
A two-part key used to identify living things. Di means two
87
Paleontology
The study of fossils
88
Biogeography
The study of the geographic distribution of life on Earth
89
Endemic
A term used to describe a species that is found in one location only
90
Homologous features
Features with similar structures but different functions
91
Analogous features
Features that are similar in appearance and function, but do not appear to have the same evolutionary origin
92
Vestigial features
Rudimentary structures with no useful function
93
DNA
The molecule that makes up genetic material
94
Gene
A segment of DNA that performs a specific function, such as coding for a particular protein
95
Artificial selection
The process of humans selecting and breeding individuals with the desired trait
96
Genotype
The actual genes an individual has
97
Phenotype
Only the genes which are visible
98
Spontaneous generation
The belief that living things arose from non-living matter
99
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
The false concept of inheritance of features acquired during the life of an individual
100
Natural selection
The result of differential reproductive success of individuals caused by variations in their inherited characteristics
101
Mutation
A change in the DNA sequence in a chromosome
102
Neutral mutation
A mutation that has no effect on the organism
103
Fitness
An organism’s reproductive success
104
Harmful mutation
A mutation that reduces an organism’s fitness
105
Beneficial mutation
A mutation that enhances an organism’s fitness
106
Asexual reproduction
The production of offspring from a single parent; offspring inherit the genes of that parent only
107
Siblings
Offspring from the same parent (in asexual reproduction) or parents (in sexual reproduction)
108
Sexual reproduction
The production of offspring by the union of sex cells from two different parents’ the offspring inherit a combination of genes from both parents
109
Gene pool
All the genes in a certain population
110
Speciation
The formation of new species
111
Allopatric speciation
Speciation by reproductive isolation
112
Theory of gradualism
The idea that speciation takes place slowly
113
Theory of punctuated equilibrium
The idea that species evolve rapidly, followed by a period of little or no change.
114
Divergent evolution
Evolution into many different species
115
Photon
A packet of light
116
EMR
Electromagnetic radiation
117
Chlorophyll
The light-absorbing green-coloured pigment that begins the process of photosynthesis
118
Chloroplast
A membrane-bound organelle in green plant and algal cells that carries out photosynthesis
119
Stroma
The protein-rich semiliquid material in the interior of a chloroplast
120
Thylakoid
A system of interconnected flattened membrane sacs forming a separate compartment within the stroma of a chloroplast
121
Grana
(singular: granum) stacks of thylakoids
122
Lamellae
(singular: lamella) groups of unstacked thylakoids between grana
123
Thylakoid membrane
The photosynthetic membrane within a chloroplast that contains light-gathering pigment molecules and electron transport chains
124
Thylakoid lumen
The fluid-filled space inside a thylakoid
125
ATP
A molecule containing three high-energy phosphate bonds that acts as the primary energy-transferring molecule in living organisms
126
ADP
A molecule containing two high-energy phosphate bonds that may be formed by breaking one of the phosphate bonds in ATP
127
NADP+
A compound that accepts one hydrogen atom and two electrons, forming NADPH; is an electron acceptor
128
NADP
A compound that donates one hydrogen atom and two electrons to another molecule, to reform NADP+; is an electron donor
129
An overview of the photosynthetic process
1. Capturing solar energy and transferring it to electrons
2. Using captured solar energy to make ATP and to transfer high-energy electrons to NADP+; yields NADPH, which is then used as a high-energy electron carrier molecule
3. Using energy stored in ATP and high-energy electrons carried by NADPH to form energy-rich organic molecules, such as glucose, from CO2
130
Light-dependent reactions
The first set of reactions of photosynthesis in which light energy excites electrons in chlorophyll molecules, powers chemiosmotic ATP synthesis, and results in the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH
131
Carbon fixation
The process of incorporating CO2 into carbohydrate molecules
132
Calvin cycle
A cyclic set of reactions occurring in the stroma of chloroplasts that fixes the carbon of CO2 into carbohydrate molecules and recycles coenzymes
133
Light-independent reaction
The second set of reactions in photosynthesis (Calvin cycle); these reactions do not require solar energy
134
Photosystem
A cluster of photosynthetic pigments embedded in a thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast that absorbs light energy
135
Electron transport chain
A series of progressively stronger electron acceptors; each time an electron is transferred, energy is released
136
Photolysis
A chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down by light; in photosynthesis, water molecules are split by photolysis
137
Oxidation
A reaction in which an atom or molecule loses electrons
138
Reduction
A reaction in which an atom or molecule gains electrons
139
ATP synthase complex
A specialized protein complex embedded in the thylakoid membrane that allows H+ ions to escape from the lumen and uses the resulting energy to generate ATP
140
Chemiosmosis
A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme
141
NAD
An electron carrier, donates electrons in cellular processes
142
NAD+
An electron carrier, accepts electrons in cellular processes
143
FADH2
An electron carrier, donates electrons in cellular processes
144
FAD+
An electron carrier, accepts electrons in cellular processes
145
Active transport
The movement of substances through a membrane against a concentration gradient using membrane-bound carrier proteins and energy from ATP
146
Sodium-potassium pump
An active-transport mechanism that pumps sodium and potassium ions into and out of a cell
147
Aerobic cellular respiration
The set of reactions that takes place in the cell in the presence of oxygen and releases energy stored in glucose
1. Glycolysis
2. Pyruvate oxidation
3. The Krebs cycle
4. The electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
Produces 36 ATP molecules per glucose molecule
148
Anaerobic cellular respiration
The set of reactions that takes place in the cell in the absence of oxygen and releases energy stored in glucose
1. Glycolysis
2. Fermentation
Produces 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule
149
Glycolysis
A process for harnessing energy in which a glucose molecule is broken into two pyruvate molecules in the cytoplasm of a cell
150
Mitochondria
A eukaryotic cell organelle in which aerobic cellular respiration occurs
151
Mitochondrial matrix
The fluid that fills the interior space of the mitochondrion
152
Intermembrane space
The fluid-filled space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes
153
The Krebs cycle
A cyclic series of reactions that transfers energy from organic molecules to ATP, NADH, and FADH2, and removes carbon atoms as CO2
154
Oxidative ATP synthesis
The production of ATP from a series of oxidation reactions
155
Alcohol fermentation
A form of fermentation occurring in yeast in wich NADH passes its hydrogen atoms to acetaldehyde, generating carbon dioxide, ethanol, and NAD+
156
Lactic acid fermentation
A form of fermentation occurring in animal cells in which NADH transfers its hydrogen atoms to pyruvate, regenerating NAD+ and lactic acid
157
Maximum oxygen consumption (VO2 max)
The maximum volume of oxygen, in milliliters, that the cells of the body can remove from the bloodstream in one minute per kilogram of body mass while the body experiences maximal exertion
158
Lactic acid threshold
The value of exercise intensity at which lactic acid production increases
159
The chemicals of life
* Vitamins and Minerals
* Lipids (fats)
* Carbohydrates
* Nucleic acids
* Proteins
160
Vitamins and minerals
o Help in chemical reactions
| o Often found in complex chemicals
161
Lipids (fats)
o Energy storage compound
| o Structural Component of cell membranes
162
Carbohydrates
o Primary energy source of cells
| o Structural material of plant cell walls
163
Nucleic acids
o Primary energy source of cells
| o Structural material of plant cell walls
164
Proteins
o Structural components of the cell
| o Composed of amino acids
165
Carbohydrate
A molecule composed of sugar subunits that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
166
Polymer
A molecule composed of three or more subunits
167
Monosaccharide
A single sugar unit
168
Isomer
One of a group of chemicals that have the same chemical formula but different arrangements of the atoms
169
Disaccharide
A sugar formed by the joining of two monosaccharide subunits
170
Dehydration synthesis
The process by which larger molecules are formed by the removal of water from two smaller molecules
171
Hydrolysis
The process by which larger molecules are split into smaller molecules by the addition of water
172
Polysaccharides
A carbohydrate composed of many single sugar subunits
173
Starch
A plant carbohydrate used to store energy
174
Glycogen
The form of carbohydrate storage in animals
175
Cellulose
A plant polysaccharide that makes up plant cell walls
176
Triglycerides
A lipid composed of glycerol and three fatty acids
177
Fat
A lipid composed of glycerol and saturated fatty acids; solid at room temperature
178
Oil
A lipid composed of glycerol and unsaturated fatty acids; liquid at room temperature
179
Phospholipids
A lipid with a phosphate molecule attached to the glycerol backbone, making the molecule polar; the major components of cell membranes
180
Wax
A long-chain lipid that is insoluble in water
181
Proteins
A chain of amino acids that form the structural parts of cells or act as antibodies or enzymes
182
Amino acid
A chemical that contains nitrogen; can be linked together to form proteins
183
Peptide bond
The bond that joins amino acids
184
Polypeptide
A chain of three or more amino acids
185
Essential amino acid
An amino acid that must be obtained from the diet
186
Denaturation
The process that occurs when the bonds of a protein molecule are disrupted, causing a temporary change in shape
187
Coagulation
The process that occurs when the bonds of a protein molecule are disrupted, causing a permanent change in shape
188
Catalyst
A chemical that increases the rate of chemical reactions without altering the products or being altered itself
189
Enzyme
A protein catalyst that permits chemical reactions to proceed at low temperatures
190
Substrate
A molecule on which an enzyme works
191
Active site
The area of an enzyme that combines with the substrate
192
Cofactor
An inorganic ion that helps an enzyme combine with a substrate molecule
193
Coenzyme
An organic molecule synthesized from a vitamin that helps an enzyme to combine with a substrate molecule
194
Competitive inhibitor
A molecule with a shape complementary to a specific enzyme that competes with the substrate for access to the active site of the enzyme and blocks chemical reactions
195
Feedback inhibition
The inhibition of an enzyme in a metabolic pathway by the final product of that pathway
196
Precursor activity
The activation of the last enzyme in a metabolic pathway by the initial substrate
197
Allosteric activity
A change in an enzyme caused by the binding of a molecule
198
What are the 4 components of the digestive process?
* Ingestion – The taking of nutrients
* Digestion – The breakdown of complex organic molecules into smaller components by enzymes
* Absorption – The transport of digested nutrients to the cells of the body
* Egestion – The removal of food waste from the body
199
Amylase
An enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates
200
Peristalsis
Rhythmic, wavelike contractions of muscle that move food along the gastrointestinal tract
201
Sphincter
A constrictor muscle that regulates the opening and closing of a tube-like structure
202
Mucus
A protective lubricating substance composed mostly of protein
203
Pepsin
A protein-digesting enzyme produced in the stomach
204
Ulcer
A lesion on the surface of an organ
205
Duodenum
The first segment of the small intestine
206
Villi
Small, fingerlike projections that extend into the small intestine to increase surface area for absorption
207
Microvilli
Microscopic, fingerlike projections of the cell membrane
208
Capillary
A blood vessel that connects arteries and veins; the site of fluid and gas exchange
209
Lacteal
A small vessel that transports the products of fat digestion to the circulatory system
210
Secretin
A hormone released from the duodenum that stimulates pancreatic and bile secretions
211
Enterokinase
An enzyme of the small intestine that converts trypsinogen to trypsin
212
Trypsin
An enzyme of the small intestine that converts trypsinogen to trypsin
213
Erepsin
An enzyme that completes protein digestion by converting short-chain peptides to amino acids
214
Lipase
A lipid-digesting enzyme
215
Bile salt
A component of bile that breaks down large fat globules
216
Cholecystokinin
A hormone secreted by the small intestine that stimulates the release of bile salts
217
Detoxify
To remove the effects of a poison
218
Gallstone
Crystals of bile salts that form in the gallbladder
219
Jaundice
The yellowish discoloration of the skin and other tissues brought about by the collection of bile pigments in the blood
220
Cirrhosis
Chronic inflammation of the liver tissue characterized by the growth of nonfunctioning fibrous tissue
221
Colon
The largest segment of the large intestine, where water reabsorption occurs
222
Gastrin
A hormone secreted by the stomach that stimulates the release of HCI
223
Enterogastrone
A hormone secreted by the small intestine that decreases gastric secretions and motility
224
Breathing
The process of the exchange of air between the lungs and the environment, including inspiration and expiration
225
Respiratory membrane
The membrane where the diffusion of oxygen and other gases occurs between the living cells of the body and the external environment (the atmosphere or water)
226
Respiration
All processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between cells and the environment, including breathing, gas exchange, and cellular respiration
227
Trachea
The windpipe
228
Cilia
Tiny hair-like structures found on some cells that sweep away foreign debris
229
Epiglottis
The structure that covers the glottis (opening of the trachea) during swallowing
230
Larynx
The voice box
231
Bronchi
The passages from the trachea to the left and right lung
232
Bronchiole
The smallest passageways of the respiratory tract
233
Alveoli
Sacs in which gas exchange occurs
234
Pleural membrane
A thin membrane that surrounds the outer surface of the lungs and lines the inner wall of the chest cavity
235
Diaphragm
A sheet of muscle that separates the organs of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity
236
Intercostal muscle
A muscle that raises and lowers the ribcage
237
Hemoglobin
The oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells
238
Oxyhemoglobin
Hemoglobin that is bound to oxygen
239
Carbonic anhydrase
An enzyme found in red blood cells that speeds the conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid
240
Chemoreceptor
A specialized nerve receptor that is sensitive to specific chemicals
241
Bronchitis
An inflammation of the bronchial tubes
242
Emphysema
A respiratory disorder characterized by an over inflation of the alveoli
243
Bronchiole asthma
A respiratory disorder characterized by reversible narrowing of the bronchial passages
244
Artery
A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart
245
Pulse
Change in the diameter of arteries following heart contractions
246
Autonomic nervous system
The part of the nervous system that controls the motor nerves that regulate equilibrium, and that is not under conscious control
247
Vasoconstriction
The narrowing of blood vessels, allowing less blood to the tissues
248
Vasodilation
The widening of blood vessels, allowing more blood to the tissues
249
Atherosclerosis
A degeneration of blood vessels caused by the accumulation of fat deposits in the inner wall
250
Arteriosclerosis
A group of disorders that cause the blood vessels to thicken, harden, and lose their elasticity
251
Aneurysm
A bulge in the weakened wall of a blood vessel, usually an artery
252
Vein
A blood vessel that carries blood toward the heart
253
Septum
A wall of muscle that separates the right and left sides of the heart
254
Pulmonary circulatory system
The system of blood vessels that carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood back to the heart
255
Systemic circulatory system
The system of blood vessels that carries oxygenated blood to the tissues of the body and deoxygenated blood back to the heart
256
Atrium
A thin-walled chamber of the heart that receives blood from veins
257
Ventricle
A muscular, thick-walled chamber of the heart that delivers blood to the arteries
258
Atrioventricular (AV) Valve
A heart valve that prevents the backflow of blood from a ventricle into an atrium
259
Semilunar valve
A vale that prevents the backflow of blood from an artery into a ventricle
260
Aorta
The largest artery in the body; carries oxygenated blood to the tissues
261
Coronary artery
An artery that supplies the cardiac muscle with oxygen and nutrients
262
Myogenic muscle
Muscle that contracts without external nerve stimulation
263
Sinoatrial (SA) node
A small mass of tissue in the right atrium that originates the impulses stimulating the heartbeat
264
Atrioventricular (AV) node
A small mass of tissue in the right atrioventricular region through which impulses from the sinoatrial node are passed to the ventricules
265
Purkinje fibre
A nerve fiber that branches and carries electrical impulses throughout the ventricles
266
Sympathetic nervous system
A division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress
267
Parasympathetic nervous system
A division of the autonomic nervous system that returns the body to normal resting levels following adjustments to stress
268
Diastole
Relaxation (dilation) of the heart, during which the atria fill with blood
269
Systole
Contraction of the heart, during which blood is pushed out of the heart
270
Cardiac output
The amount of blood pumped from the heart each minute
271
Stroke volume
The quantity of blood pumped with each beat of the heart
272
Blood pressure
The force of the blood on the walls of the arteries
273
Sphygmomanometer
A device used to measure blood pressure
274
Thermoregulation
Maintenance of body temperature within a range that enables cells to function efficiently
275
Hypothalamus
Region of a vertebrate’s brain responsible for coordinating many nerve and hormone functions
276
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Fluid that occupies the spaces between cells and tissues; includes plasma and interstitial fluid
277
Filtration
The selective movement of materials through capillary walls by a pressure gradient
278
Lymph
The fluid found in lymph vessels that contains some proteins that have leaked through capillary walls
279
Lymph node
A mass of tissue that stores lymphocytes and removes bacteria and foreign particles from the lymph
280
Lymphocyte
A white blood cell that produces antibodies
281
Spleen
A lymphoid organ that acts as a reservoir for blood and a filtering site for lymph
282
Thymus gland
A lymphoid organ in which T lymphocytes mature
283
Cardiac muscle
The involuntary muscle of the heart
284
Smooth muscle
The involuntary muscle found in the lining of many organs
285
Tendon
A band of connective tissue that joins muscle to bone
286
Antagonistic muscles
A pair of skeletal muscles that are arranged in pairs and that work against each other to make a joint move
287
Flexor
The muscle that must contract to bend a joint
288
Extensor
The muscle that must contract to straighten a joint
289
Sarcolemma
The delicate sheath that surrounds muscle fibers
290
Myofilament
A thread of contractile proteins found within muscle fibers
291
Creatine phosphate
A compound in muscle cells that releases a phosphate to ADP and helps regenerate ATP supplies in muscle cells
292
Summation
Increased muscle contraction produced by the combination of stimuli
293
Tetanus
The state of constant muscle contraction caused by sustained nerve impulses
294
Plasma
The fluid portion of the blood
295
Erythocyte
A red blood cell that contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen
296
Anemia
The reduction in blood oxygen due to low levels of hemoglobin or poor red blood cell production
297
Leukocyte
A white blood cell
298
Platelets
A component of blood responsible for initiating blood clotting
299
Thrombus
A blood clot that forms within a blood vessel and blocks it
300
Embolus
A blood clot that dislodges and is carried by the circulatory system to another part of the body
301
Antigen
A substance, usually protein, that stimulates the formation of an antibody
302
Antibody
A protein formed within the blood that reacts with an antigen
303
Agglutination
The clumping of blood cells caused by antigens and antibodies
304
Phagocytosis
The process by which a white blood cell engulfs and chemically destroys a microbe
305
Macrophage
A phagocytic white blood cells found in lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen, and liver
306
Pus
A thick liquid composed of protein fragments from digested leukocytes and microbes
307
Inflammatory response
Localized nonspecific response triggered when tissue cells are injured by bacteria or physical injury, characterized by swelling, heat, redness, and pain
308
Complement protein
A plasma protein that helps defend against invading microbes by tagging the microbe for phagocytosis, puncturing cell membranes, or triggering the formation of a mucous coating
309
T cell
A lymphocyte, manufactured in the bone marrow and processed by the thymus gland that identifies and attacks foreign substances
310
B cell
A lymphocyte, made and processed in the bone marrow, that produces antibodies
311
Receptor site
A port along a cell membrane into which hormones, nutrients, and other needed materials fit
312
Helper T cell
A T cell with receptors that bind to fragments of antigens
313
Lymphokine
A protein produced by the T cells that acts as a chemical messenger between other T cells and B cells
314
Killer T cell
A T cell that destroys microbes, body cells infected with viruses, and mutated cells by puncturing cell membranes
315
Suppressor T cell
A T cell that turns off the immune system
316
Memory B cell
A B cell that retains information about the shape of an antigen
317
Pluripotent cell
A cell that is capable of developing into a number of specialized cells, such as neuron or muscle cells
318
Deamination
Removal of amino group from an organic compound
319
Urea
Nitrogen waste formed from two molecules of ammonia and one molecule of carbon dioxide
320
Uric acid
A waste product formed from the breakdown of nucleic acids
321
Ureter
A tube that conducts urine from the kidney to the bladder
322
Urethra
The tube that carries urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body
323
Cortex
The outer layer of the kidney
324
Medulla
The area inside of the cortex
325
Renal pelvis
The hollow area where the kidney joins the ureter
326
Nephron
A functional unit of the kidney
327
Afferent arteriole
A small branch of the renal artery that carries blood to the glomerulus
328
Glomerulus
The high pressure capillary bed that is the site of filtration
329
Efferent arteriole
A small branch of the renal artery that carries blood away from the glomerulus to the peritubular capillaries
330
Peritubular capillary
A member of the network of small blood vessels that surround the tubule of the nephron
331
Bowman's capsule
The cuplike structure that surrounds the glomerulus
332
Proximal tubule
The section of the nephron joining the Bowman’s capsule with the loop of Henle
333
Loop of Henle
The section of the tubule that carries filtrate from the proximal tubule to the distal tubule
334
Distal tubule
Conducts urine from the loop of Henle to the collecting duct
335
Collecting duct
A tube that carries urine from nephrons to the renal pelvis
336
Threshold level
The maximum amount of a substance that can be moved across the nephron
337
Interstitial fluid
The fluid that surrounds the body cells
