10. Motor Learning

Question 1

What is a Motor Skill?

Answer 1

A motor skill is a coordinated movement or action that involves using muscles and sensory information to achieve a specific goal

Question 2

What is an Ability?

Answer 2

Ability – a general, enduring trait affected by both learning and heredity (e.g., balance)

Question 3

What is a Skill?

Answer 3

Skill – specific to a given task and gained through experience
(e.g., performing the balance beam in gymnastics, a skill that requires the ability to balance)

Question 4

What are Motor Abilities?
List some Examples.

Answer 4

Many separate components called motor abilities contribute to the way in which skill learning occurs. Including;

Muscular strength,
muscular endurance,
cardiovascular endurance,
speed, agility,
balance, eye/hand/foot coordination,
control precision,
multi-limb coordination, reaction time, manual dexterity,
and power.

Question 5

What are the Characteristics of Skilful Motor Performance? (4)

Answer 5

1. Production of a fast output of high quality.
2. An appearance of ease and smoothness of movement.
3. An anticipation of variations in the stimulus situation before they arrive.
4. Reduction in time to make a choice of responses once the signal is identified.

Question 6

What are Motor Skill Classification Systems used for? (3)

Answer 6

• Determine which components of a skill are common or similar to components of another skill.
• For each classification system, consider each of the two categories as extreme ends of a continuum.
• Most activities will be between the extremes, containing elements of each.

Question 7

What are the Three classifications systems?

Answer 7

Question 8

Gross vs. Fine Classification system:

Answer 8

Based on the precision of movement:

• This classification system is most commonly used in special education adapted physical education, and rehabilitation.

Question 9

What are Gross Motor Skills?

Answer 9

Gross motor skills

• involve large musculature as the primary basis of movement
• walking, throwing, jumping, most sport skills
• While precision of movement is not an important component, the smooth coordination of movement is essential to the skilled performance of these tasks.

Question 10

What are Fine Motor Skills?

Answer 10

Fine motor skills

• skills that require the ability to control small muscles of the body in order to achieve the successful execution of the skill.
• Generally, these skills involve hand-eye coordination and require a high degree of precision in movement
• writing, drawing, piano playing, watchmaking

Question 11

What type of therapists usually work with Gross and Fine Motor Skills?

Answer 11

• Physical therapists usually work with gross motor skills
• Occupational therapists usually work on fine motor skills.

Question 12

Discrete vs. Continuous Classification System:

Answer 12

Based on the distinctiveness of beginning and end points of the movement:

Question 13

What are Discrete Motor Skills?

Answer 13

Discrete motor skill

• clearly defined beginning and end points
• throwing a ball, pushing in the clutch in a car, hitting a key on a computer
• Discrete skills can be put together in a series - serial motor skills - starting a standard transmission automobile, a dance routine, shooting an arrow in archery.

Question 14

What are Continuous motor skills?

Answer 14

Continuous motor skill

• has arbitrary beginning and endpoints.
• The performer or some external force determines the beginning or en point of the skill rather than the skill itself
• steering a car, swimming, running, etc.

Question 15

Closed vs Open Classification System:

Answer 15

Based on the stability of the environment in which the skill is performed: Closed vs. Open

• This classification system is most commonly used in physical education.

Question 16

What are Closed Skills?

Answer 16

• the performance environment is stable and predictable
• golf, bowling, archery, weightlifting, swimming, etc.
• These skills are self-paced.
• The stimulus waits to be acted on by the performer.
• Require similar responses each time a response is required

Question 17

What are Open Skills?

Answer 17

• the performance environment is constantly changing and is therefore much less predictable
• hitting a tennis ball, racquetball, baseball, team sports
• Externally paced task
• The performer is required to make rapid modifications in her plan of action to match the demands of the situation. The performer must act according to the action of the object or the characteristics of the environment.

Question 18

What are Fundamental Movement Skills?

Answer 18

• Fundamental Movement Skills- the foundational movements to the more specialized and complex skills used in play, dance and sport
• Throwing, Catching, Jumping, Striking, Running, Kicking
• Agility, Coordination and Balance
• Physical education teachers use their knowledge of fundamental movements to help children develop their motor skills

Question 19

Fundamental Movement Skills Training focuses on three categories:

Answer 19

Question 20

What is Physical Literacy?

Answer 20

• “the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life.”
• Whitehead, 2014

Ideally, fundamental movement skills and physical literacy are developed in childhood and maintained throughout life.

• “Children who develop early motor competencies are more physically active during childhood” (Lopes et al., 2001)
• “active children and youth are more likely to stay active into adulthood “(Telama et al., 2001).
• “Top athletes are likely to have participated in more sports earlier and specialized later
  “(Bridge & Toms, 2013).

Question 21

Why is it important to be active for life?

Answer 21

Active for Life

• The development of fundamental movement skills at a young age, will help our population gain the confidence to move throughout their lives.
• This will result in greater participation in physical activity and create broad health benefits for our population
• The maintenance of physical literacy can contribute significantly to the prevention of many of the challenges that come with aging.
• Chronic disease risk
• Mobility issues
• Maintenance of activities of daily living
• Psychological health
• To succeed, the importance of sport, recreation, and physical education in public health needs to be recognized and supported
• Community-based approaches should play important roles in building and maintaining resilient individuals.

Question 22

What is Functional Health?

Answer 22

Functional Health

• As a population is aging, they experience more declines in functional health, measured by physical literacy, which reduces quality of life.
• Decreased functional health increases Health Care costs and reduces the economic productivity of a population
• Increasing functional health (durability) will increase the capacity of individuals to avoid poor health and recover more quickly (resilience)

Question 23

What are the 3 Stages of Skill Acquisition?

Answer 23

1. Cognitive Stage
2. Associative Stage
3. Autonomous Stage

Question 24

What is the Cognitivie Stage?

Answer 24

• Performer is attempting to form a mental plan of the performance that will govern their actions
• Errors are made frequently and tend to be large
• Performance is highly variable

Question 25

What is the Associative Stage?

Answer 25

• Performer moves to this stage when he is able to reproduce a reasonable approximation of the desired movement
• In this stage, the task of the performer is to refine the necessary movements required for the execution of the task
• Errors are no longer large

Question 26

What is the Autonomous Stage?

Answer 26

• Advanced performers are at this stage
• Movements that make up the motor responses have been automated and, where appropriate, spare attention may be devoted to other tasks such as, for open skills, game strategy.
• This stage is the result of a tremendous amount of practice
• There is a good degree of similarity between highly practiced skills and reflexes.
• Variability of performance is small
• Small improvements in skill do continue in this stage

Question 27

Stages of Skill Acquisition Summary:

Answer 27

1. Cognitive Stage: Performer is attempting to form a mental plan of the performance that will govern their actions. Their errors are made frequently and tend to be large. Their performance is highly variable.
2. Associative Stage: Performer moves to this stage when he is able to reproduce a reasonable approximation of the desired movement. In this stage, the task of the performer is to refine the necessary movements required for the execution of the task. The errors are no longer large.
3. Autonomous Stage: Advanced performers are at this stage. The movements that make up the motor responses have been automated and, where appropriate, spare attention may be devoted to other tasks such as, for open skills, game strategy. This stage is the result of a tremendous amount of practice

Question 28

What is Motor Learning?

Answer 28

• a relatively permanent change in the performance levels of a motor task as the result of practice
• Can be sub-divided into (at least) two categories:
  – Skill learning
  – Sensorimotor adaptation

Question 29

What is Skill Learning?

Answer 29

• Skill learning
  – Involves acquiring new muscle activation patterns to achieve a greater level of performance
  – E.g., Learning to ride a bicycle or play tennis

Question 30

What is Sensorimotor Adaptation?

Answer 30

Sensorimotor system responds to altered environmental (or body) conditions by reducing errors to regain a previous level of performance

– E.g., Recovery of function following neurological injury

Question 31

What are Performance Curves?

Answer 31

Performance curves
– Plot of the level achieved on the performance measure across time
– Assess improvement and consistency of performance

Question 32

What are Retention Tests?

Answer 32

Retention tests
– An assessment on the performance of a learned skill after a period of time following practice
* E.g., pre-post-retention test paradigm for clinical trials in rehabilitation

– Assess the persistence of improved performance

Question 33

What are Transfer Tests?

Answer 33

“Transfer Tests” typically refer to assessments or evaluations designed to measure a student’s ability to apply knowledge, skills, or concepts learned in one context to new or different situations.

Question 34

What is the Transfer of learning?

Answer 34

• Transfer of learning is the influence of a previously practiced skill on the learning of a new skill
• racquetball vs. squash;
• teaching basic swimming strokes using dry land drills before letting students try the strokes in the water,
• using a pitching machine to teach hitting in baseball, etc.

Question 35

What is Positive Transfer?

Answer 35

• Occurs when experience with a previous skill aids or facilitates the learning of a new skill
• surfing, snowboarding
• The higher the degree of similarity between the component parts of two skills or two performance situations, the greater the amount of positive transfer that can be expected between them.

Question 36

What is the Negative transfer of learning?

Answer 36

• Occurs when experience with a previous skill interferes with the learning of a new skill.
• forehand in tennis vs badminton
• Negative transfer effects occur when a new response is required for an old stimulus - (eg) – different keyboard
• Negative transfer will generally be seen only in specific aspects of an activity
• Negative transfer affects are typically temporary; they are usually overcome rather quickly with practice

Question 37

What is Zero transfer?

Answer 37

• experience with a previous skill has no influence on the learning of a new skill
• learning to swim and learning to drive a car

Question 38

What is Bilateral transfer of learning?

Answer 38

Bilateral transfer of learning -
involves the improvement in the performance of one limb as a result of practice with the opposite limb.

This is important in motor skills such as dribbling a basketball, kicking a soccer ball, etc.

Available evidence indicates that greater transfer can be expected to occur from the preferred limb to the non-preferred limb.

Bilateral transfer effects are the result of both cognitive and motor factors. Results indicate that bilateral transfer occurs faster when one limb is practiced to a reasonable degree of proficiency before practice is begun with the other limb.

Question 39

What is Augmented Feedback?

Answer 39

Augmented Feedback comes from someone or something external to the person. It is distinct from sensory feedback which comes from the learners’ own sensory system.

Augmented Feedback allows the learner to determine if they’re appropriately performing the skill. It can also motivate the learner to continue to try to reach their goal. There are two distinct categories of augmented feedback;

Question 40

What is Knowledge Of Results?

Answer 40

“Knowledge of Results” refers to feedback or information provided to an individual about the outcome or results of their actions or performance during a task or activity. It focuses on the end result of their efforts, helping the individual understand the consequences of their actions and guiding them in making adjustments for better future performance.

Question 41

What is Knowledge of Performance?

Answer 41

“Knowledge of Performance” refers to feedback or information provided to an individual about their own performance during a task or activity. It focuses on the quality, efficiency, and effectiveness of the actions taken, helping the individual understand how they are performing and what aspects they can improve.

Question 42

KP vs KR

Answer 42

KR and KP differ in which aspect of performance the information refers to
- E.g., Physical therapist with a patient;
- KR = ‘you walked 5 m more than yesterday’
- KP = ‘you should bend at your knees more as you walk’

Question 43

What are the Benefits of KR?
(4)

Answer 43

• To confirm own assessments of task-intrinsic feedback
• When the learner can’t determine the outcome of performing skill (e.g. when the result is not visible to the learner)
• To motivate
• When practitioners and coaches want learners to problem solve by making trial and error

Question 44

What are the Benefits of KP?

Answer 44

• Motor skills require specific movement characteristics
  – E.g., gymnastic stunts or figure skating jumps
• Highly coordinated movement components of skill must be improved or corrected
• The goal (but not necessarily movement) of the action is kinematic, kinetic, or specific muscle activity not readily observable
• KR is redundant with task-intrinsic feedback
  – E.g. when vision can be used to determine they missed the target

Question 45

What Should the Content of Augmented
Feedback Relate to?

Answer 45

Research suggests:

• Providing error information is more effective for facilitating skill learning than providing information on the correct aspect of performance
• Qualitative information may be better to provide in the early stages of learning compared to quantitative information
• This relates to the fact that it is easier to make a first approximation of the required movement at this stage
• Quantitative information is likely better for a non-novice
• Erroneous feedback = IS BAD
  – Learners will use it despite it being wrong

Question 46

What information to give as KR/KP?

Answer 46

• No more or no less information about a performance should be provided than the learner is capable of handling.
• KR/KP must provide information that will direct attention to the part of the skill that must be corrected and it must provide information that will enable the learner to make an appropriate correction.
• Augmented feedback should NOT be given every practice trial

Question 47

Is Videotape a good method of giving KR and KP?

Answer 47

• The skill level of the student is a critical factor - beginners need the aid of an instructor to point out information from the replay
• Meaningful information must be presented

Question 48

How important is the Amount and Variety of Practice?

Answer 48

• The purpose of practicing a skill is to learn to perform that skill in situations where you will in some way be tested.
• Establish practice conditions that will lead to maximum test performance.
• It is essential to have a variety of practice experiences involving variations of the skill being learned so that a person can successfully perform the skill in a variety of performance situations.

Question 49

Open skills vs. closed skills

Answer 49

• Increasing the variability within each practice session is preferred to practicing one variation during one session, another variation in another session, etc.
• The amount of practice affects the quality of learning although the effect is not always proportional. What form of instruction or practice will yield the greatest returns for the least expenditure of time?
• The spacing or distribution of practice can affect both practice performance and learning.

Question 50

What is Mental Practice?

Answer 50

Mental practice is the cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt, physical practice. It involves imaging the actual correct performance of the movement.

Reinforces a proper response as an aid to an upcoming response.

This is often used in golf and gymnastics.

Mental practice, when used properly, can be an effective aid in the acquisition, performance, and retention of motor skills. Its implementation requires effective planning by the teacher and use by the students.

One benefit of mental practice - in a large class, students can be instructed to mentally practice a certain number of movements or exercises while they are waiting their turn to use equipment.