10: Brain and Behavior

Question 1

What are the different stages of memory?

Answer 1

4 Stages

1. Registration- sensory input and attention
2. Encoding: lay down of new information (problem in Alzheimers)
3. Storage of new information
4. Retrieval (remembering) -recall layed down memory –> Disfunction can be present at any stage

Question 2

Explain how Memory can be distinguished accordint to its duration

Answer 2

• Conceptual divisions in memory systems
  
  • Sensory- very short time (not everything processed)
  • Working or short term memory (the information that is laid down) –> technically few seconds
  • Long-term memory

Be aware of different languages used (e.g. patients referring to short time memory often referes to things happening weeks/days ago)

Question 3

Explain how different types of memory

Answer 3

• Sensory memory
  
  • can either go into working memory store (limited capacity) or
  • directly into long term memory (but always a lot of information is lost)
• Some of working can be transformed into long term memory
• Long term memory can be retrieved into working memory

Question 4

Explain the different types of long term memory

Answer 4

• Declerative memory
  
  • Episodic
    
    • ike went to my trip to my hilday semantic
  • factual
    
    • E.g. what is the capital
• Non-declerative
  
  • Procedural
    
    • knowing how to do things (walking/talking)
  • Priming
  • Conditioning
  • Non-assiciative learning
    
    • a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus

Question 5

What are the types of memory that are often assessed in clinic

Answer 5

Often: Declerative learning (Hippocampus) + Diencephalon

Question 6

Which part of the brain is involved in semantic memory?

Answer 6

Inferolateral temporal lobe

Semantic memory= knowing of facts etc.

Question 7

Which part of the brain is associated with working memory (short term)

Answer 7

Prefontal Cortex

Question 8

Explain the different modalities of memory

Answer 8

Very broadly speaking: • Left hemisphere: Mainly concerned with verbal information processing • Right hemisphere: Mainly concerned with non-verbal information (e.g. face)

Question 9

Explain the role of the serioal position effect in memory formation

Answer 9

• Primary effect (absent in Alzheimers) –> remembrering first part of memroy
• Recency effect –> Remember the most recent experiences/words

Question 10

Explain the different factors that influence the probability of recalling a word from a words list

Answer 10

1. Order in the list
2. Personal salience of words
3. Number of words
4. Chunking or other encoding strategy (e.g. occupation, animal etc.)
5. Delay time
6. Distraction

Question 11

Explain the gross structure of language

Answer 11

Phonemes (sounds) give rise to morphemes (small unit with meaning) which are combined to words (which then give sentences)

Question 12

Summrise language development in childhood

Answer 12

There is a critical period of language (the younger the more, up to about 5-6)

But general

• 0-3 Month: recognition of language vs no language
• 4-6: babbling with phenomes from any language
• 7-11: babbling with phenomes heard in language spoken, imitates words
• 1year: starts words
• 12-18: using single words to communicate
• 18-24: expansion of vocabulary, simple sentences
• 2-4 years: further expansion of vocabulary and whole sentences

Question 13

In which hemisphere is language located?

Answer 13

95% left hemisphere dominance (for right handed people)

In left handed people: a bit less but still right sided dominance

Question 14

Where is a lesion present with someone with expressive aphasia?

Answer 14

In the Broca’s area located in left hemisphere (frontal(between frontal and temporal lobe)

Question 15

What are the characteristics of expressive aphasia?

Answer 15

Intact comprehension but problem to produce speech:

• Non-fluent speech
• Impaired repetition
• Poor ability to produce syntactically correct sentences

Question 16

Where is a lesion present with someone with receptive aphasia?

Answer 16

Wernicke Lesion

Posterior part of Temporal lobe (+part of parietal lobe)

Question 17

What are the characteristics of Wernikckes aphasia?

Answer 17

Problems in understaning spech but are able to talk

• Fluent meaningless speech
• Paraphasias – errors in producing specific words
  
  • semantic substituting words similar in meaning (“barn” –“house”)
  • Phonemic substituting words similar in sound (“house” –“mouse”)
• Poor repetition
• Impairment in writing

Question 18

Explain the Language Circuit

Answer 18

Many areas are involved

1. Information from primary auditory cortex to Wernickes area
2. Wernicke analyses words said Trasnmitted to Brocas area via the arcuate fasciculus
3. Brocas area forms motor plan
4. Motor cortex implements plan

Not just the individual areas are important but also their connecting pathways

Question 19

What are different conditions that can cause aphasia?

Answer 19

• Stroke
• Traumatic brain injury
• Cerebral tumour
• Progressive neurodegenerative conditions

Question 20

What is dysexecutive Syndrome?

Answer 20

Behavior change as result of direct damage of frontal lobe –> Disruption of executive function (e.g. planning, focus attention, remember instructions etc)

• Involving: cognitive, emotional and bahavioural symptoms

Cause: head trauma, tumours, degenerative diseases, and cerebrovascular disease, as well as in several psychiatric conditions

Question 21

What are behavioral aspects of dysecutive syndrome

Answer 21

Can be different in everyone ususally on of the sides:

• hypoactivity vs hyperactivity
• lack of drive vs impulsive
• apathetic vs disinhibited
• poor initiation of tasks vs perseverative
• Emotional bluntness vs dysregulation

All togehter:

• theory of mind difficulty, social inappropriate and rude due to lakc of empathy

Question 22

What are the cognitive aspect sinovled in dysexecutive syndrome?

Answer 22

• Attentional and working memory difficulties
• Poor planning & organisation
• Difficulty
  
  • coping with novel situations and unstructured tasks
  • switching from task to task
  • keeping track of multiple tasks
  • with complex/abstract thinking

Question 23

What are the different parts of the frontal lobe that are associated with dysexecutive syndrome

Answer 23

• Orbito-frontal
  
  • Impulsivity, disinhibition
• Medial
  
  • Loss of spontaneity, initiation (akinetic mutism)
• Posteriolateral
  
  • Inability to formulate and carry out plans

+ signaling/ communicating pathways involved (subcortical areas)

Question 24

Which part of the brain is associated with procedual memory?

Answer 24

Basal Ganglia

Supplementary Motor Area

Cerebellum

Question 25

Which parts of the brain are associated with episodic memory?

Answer 25

Involves the medial temporal lobes including

• the hippocampus,
• entorhinal cortex,
• mammilary bodies, and
• parahippocampal cortex

Question 26

What is total amnesia?

Answer 26

It is a rare form of amnesia –>expecially rare if isolated with otherwised preserved cognition

Question 27

Which parts of memory are often defect and intact in people with memory disorders?

Answer 27

Intact: Implicit memory or learning often intact in memory disorders

Othwerwise:

• depending on the disease different parts of memory can be affected

Question 28

Briefly state four ways in which you can reduce the amount of information forgotten by a patient during a consultation

Answer 28

• Reduce amount of info
• Stress importance
• Be specific
• Give written info
• Follow up
• Order of information (rist and last information)
• Mode of presentation