1 Basic stuff Flashcards
What’s the difference between an element and a compound?
- element: a substance made entirely of the same atoms (e.g. O2)
- compound: a substance made of different atoms (e.g. CH4)
What four elements make up 96% of the body’s mass?
oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen
What’s an ion?
an atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has an unequal number of protons and electrons (while an atom has equal protons and electrons)
What’s a free radical?
an electrically charged atom (or group of atoms) with an unpaired electron
The building phase of metabolism:
anabolism
The breaking down phase of metabolism:
catabolism
Define covalent bond:
A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemicalbond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. These electron pairs are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs, and the stable balance of attractive and repulsive forces between atoms, when they share electrons, is known as covalent bonding. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bond)
Substances that are used to make energy (i.e. to reform ATP) are collectively called:
energy substrates
Define cellular respiration
a series of reactions that transfer energy from food to ATP
The process of making ATP from glucos occurs in the ___ ___ and is called ___
cell cytoplasm; glycolysis
Through glycolysis, a molecule of glucose is broken into _ molecules of __ __ and _ molecules of __
2; pyruvic acid; 2; ATP
aka for carbohydrate metabolism
aka glucose metabolism
What’s the body’s preferred energy substrate?
glucose
After glycolysis, what happens to pyruvic acid with and without the presence of oxygen?
- with O2:
- pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria
- a series of reactions yield 26-28 more ATP
- without O2:
- pyruvic acid doesw not go into the mitochondria – it is converted into lactic acid/lactate
- lactic acid diffuses out of the cell into the blood (used by other cells)
What’s lypolysis?
breakdown of stored fat (into glycerol and fatty acids which can be used to make ATP)
What defines and organic compound?
contains carbon (e.g. carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids, ATP)
(vs. inorganic compounds, e.g.: water, many salts, acids, bases)
What’s the term for the storage form of glucose in the body?
glycogen
What are the four major groups of tissue?
- epithelial (covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, cavities and ducts; forms glands)
- connective (connects different parts of the body and gives structure)
- muscular
- nervous
What are the steps/events in a feedback loop cycle?
- monitored
- evaluated
- changed
- re-monitored
- re-evaluated…
What are the components of a feedback system/loop?
- sensor/receptor
- transmission pathways
- control centre
- effector(s)
What kinds of changes can a sensor/receptor in a feedback system/loop detect?
chemical, electrical, mechanical changes
What are membrane proteins?
proteins that are either embedded within the membrane or are attached to one side of the membrane (inside or outside)
How do membrane proteins function?
Function as:
- selective channels that allow and/or move molecules from one side of the membrane to the other
- receptors that recognize specific molecules
- identify the cell
- strengthen and support cell membrnes and connect adjacent cell membranes
What’s the structure and function of microvilli?
- structure: finger-like projections of the plasma membrane
- function: no movement, they increase surface area
What’s the structure and function of cytoplasm?
- the contents of a cell (everything inside the plasma membrane and outside the nucleus)
- structure: 2 components – intracellular fluid/cytosol (water, dissolved substances) and organelles
- function: cell metabolism, storage
What’s the structure and function of the cytoskeleton?
- a network of protein filaments within the cytosol
- function: provides a structural framework for cell shape, a scaffold for the organization/placement and movement of cell contents (organelles), force transmission, and aids in cell movement
What’s the function of ribosomes?
Function: site of protein synthesis (reads instructions from DNA to build proteins)
What’s the function of the endoplasmic reticulum? (rER)
Function: the sight of protein synthesis (ribosomes are attached)
What’s the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum? (sER)
Function: makes lipid molecules, regulates calcium within the cell and regulates metabolism
What’s the function of the golgi complex (aka apparatus, body)?
Function: it processes, sorts, packages, and delivers molecules to the plasma membrane or around the cell
What’s the function of the lysosome?
Function: they break down substances for the cell has taken in or normal parts of the cell that are damaged
What’s the function of the mitochondria?
- Function: power plants of the cell
- They transform organic compounds into energy (ATP) that is easily accessible to the cell
What is the structure and function of cilia?
- Structure: short, hair-like projections extending from the surface of the cell
- Function: movement of the cilia causes steady movement of fluid/particles along the cell surface
What is the structure and function of flagella?
- Structure: similar to cilia but longer
- Function: move the cell
What are the two types of passive processes for membrane transport?
- Diffusion
- Osmosis
What are the two types of active processes for membrane transport?
- Active transport
- Transport in vesicles
Describe diffusion (membrane transport)
- Movement of molecules across the plasma membrane d**own their concentration gradient
- Both the solvent and the solutes undergo diffusion (they move down their concentration gradient)
- Across the plasma membrane, molecules can either move straight through or go through membrane proteins
Describe osmosis (membrane transport)
- Diffusion in which there is a net movement of the solvent through a selectively permeable membrane
- Passive movement water across a selectively permeable plasma membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration
- Osmosis only occurs when a membrane is permeable to water and not too certain solutes
Described active transport (re: membrane transport)
- The movement of a substance across a membrane against its concentration gradient
- Energy is used/needed to ‘pump’ in or out of the cell
- Movement is through membrane-bound proteins
Describe transport in vesicles (RE: membrane transport)
- Vesicle: a small spherical sack
- Endocytosis: extracellular materials are brought into the cell in the vesicle formed by the plasma membrane
- Phagocytosis: form of endocytosis in which the cells angles large solid particles like bacteria, viruses, worn-out cells
- Only phagocytes are able to perform phagocytosis
- Exocytosis: vesicles formed in a cell fuse with the plasma membrane and release materials out of the cell
What are the three types of cell junctions?
- Tight junctions: prevent the passage of substances between cells (e.g. Epithelial in bladder)
- anchoring junctions (anchor cells to one another)
- Gap junctions provide channels to allow substances to pass between cells (heart)
What are the four types of tissue?
- Epithelial
- Connective
- Muscle
- Nervous
What are the main characteristics of epithelial tissue?
- Covers body services
- Lines hollow organs, body cavities and ducts
- Forms glands
- Composed of cells arranged in continuous sheets (Single or multiple layers) to cover all ‘free’ surfaces
What are the main functions of epithelial tissue?
- Selective barriers
- Secretory services
- Protective services
The following are examples of locations where we would find cake what kind of tissue?
- Skin
- Gastrointestinal tract
- Respiratory tract
- Urinary tract
- Lining the blood vessels and the heart
- Glands
Does epithelial tissue have a nerve or blood supply?
- Epithelial tissue is avascular
- Epithelial tissue has a nerve supply
When classifying epithelial tissue, what are the possible layer arrangements (In general descriptions)?
- Simple: one layer, good for the passage of substances
- Pseudostratified: a single layer but not all cells reach the free service, some will have cilia, someone will secrete mucous (Goblet cells)
- Stratified: more than one layer, good for protection
When classifying epithelial tissue, what are the possible cell shapes (and general descriptions)?
- Squamous (transl: fish scales): flat and thin, rapid movement of substance (Simple), protection (stratified)
- Cuboidal call Cube (or hexagon) shaped, free service may have microvilli, Good for either secretion or absorption
- Columnar: taller than wide, free surface may have cilia for microvilli, good for either secretion or absorption
What’s a simple definition of a gland?
One or more cells that make and secrete a particular product
What are the two kinds of glandular epithelium and how they differ?
- Exocrine glands
- Secrete their products into ducts (Tubes) that empty onto the epithelial service
- Example: Sweat, salivary, oil
- Endocrine glands
- Secrete their products into the interstitial fluid and diffuse directly into the bloodstream without flowing through a duct
- Examples: pituitary, thyroid, adrenals
What’s the basic structure of connective tissue?
- made of:
- Extracellular matrix (the material between the cells)
- Cells
- Most CTs have a good blood supply (Typically means good healing capabilities)
- Most CTs nerve supply
The following are functions of which type of tissue?
- Protection
- Support/definition
- Binding
- Transportation
- Energy (i.e. energy substrate)
- Immunity
Functions of connective tissue
What substances does extracellular matrix contain?
- Protein fibres
- Ground substance
What kind of protein fibres are founded in connective tissue?
- Collagen: white, very strong, resist pulling (tensile) forces (fibre arrangement is determined by the forces acting on fibres)
- tensile: like tug of war rope (not elastic)
- Elastin: yellow, smaller than collagen, strong but stretchy
- Reticular: thin, fine collagen fibers that form branching networks
What’s a general description of the ground substance of connective tissue?
- May be fluid, gel-like or calcified
- It supports the cells and through it, substances are exchanged between the blood and the cells
What are the general categories of connective tissue cells?
- blasts
- macrophages
- plasma cells
- mast cells
- adipocytes
What kind of “-blasts” are found in each of the following:
- loose and dense CT
- bone
- cartilage
- fibroblasts – loose and dense CT
- osteoblasts – bone
- chondroblasts – cartilage
(each major type of CT contains cells with a name ending in -blast)
These connective tissue cells eat bacteria and cellular debris:
macrophages
These connective tissue cells are part of the immune response (secrete antibodies)
plasma cells
These connective tissue cells make histamine:
mast cells
These connective tissue cells store fat:
adipocytes
What are the five types of connective tissue?
- Loose (areolar, adipose, reticular)
- Dense (regular, irregular, elastic)
- Bone
- Cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic)
- Liquid (blood, lymph)
What are the three types of loose connective tissue?
- areaolar
- adipose
- reticular
What’s the most widely distributed CT in the body? (the universal packing tissue and glue)
areolar
Where in the body is areolar tissue found and what is its function?
- locations: in and around nearly every body structure (beneath the skin, around blood vessels, nerves, and body organs)
- function: strength, elasticity, support
What is adipose tissue, where is it found and how does it function?
- areolar tissue that contains a lot of adipocytes
- locations: beneath the skin and aroudn some organs (kidneys, heart, behind eyeball)
- function: thermoregulation, energy, support, protection
Where is reticular tissue found and how does it function?
- locations: liver, spleen, lymph nodes, basement membrane, around blood vessels and muscles
- function: forms the supporting framework of organs, binds smooth muscle cells, filters and removes old blood cells and microbes
What are the three types of dense connective tissue?
- regular
- irregular
- elastic
What is dense regular connective tissue, where is it found and how does it function?
- collagen is arranged in parallel patterns
- locations: tendons and most ligaments
- function: very strong but somewhat pliable structural connections
- tends to occur in areas of the body where forces are regularly pulling apart (this aligns the tissue and makes it ‘regular’)
What is dense irregular connective tissue, where is it found and how does it function?
- collagen is arranged in random/irregular patterns
- locations: fascia, structure, support
- function: tensile (pulling) strength in many directions
What is dense elastic connective tissue, where is it found and how does it function?
- Tissue with high elastin content
- Locations: lung tissue, arteries, ligaments between vertebrae
- Function: stretch and recoil
Bone matrix is filled with ___ ___ ___ (and relaively few cells) which make it very hard.
Calcium phosphate salts
What are cartilage cells called?
Chondrocytes
Does cartilage have a blood or nerve supply?
No blood or nerve supply
What are the three types of cartilage?
- hyaline cartilage
- fibrocartilage
- elastic cartilage
What is hyaline cartilage, where is it found and how does it function?
- Most common religion and body
- Blue-white appearance
- Locations: ends of bones, parts of ribs, tip of nose, parts of the throat and lungs, fetal skeleton
- Function: flexibility, support, friction reduction, shock absorption
Where is fibrocartilage found and how does it function?
- Locations: between vertebrae (intervertebral discs), pubic symphysis, menisci
- Function: support
- Strongest of the cartilages
What is elastic cartilage, where is it found and how does it function?
- How’s elastin fibers
- Locations: epiglottis (elastic cartilage covered with epithelium), part of the external ear
- Function: support and flexibility well maintaining shape
What is liquid cartilage, where is it found and how does it function?
- Blood: cells surrounded by a fluid ECM called plasma
- Cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
- Function: transport system
- Lymph: a plasma like fluid in lymphatic vessels – functions in immunity, transportation, fluid regulation
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
- skeletal
- smooth
- cardiac
What are akas for the neuron cell body?
aka soma aka perikaryon
What do fibroblasts make?
- collagen
- elastin
- reticular fibres
What is subserous (aka visceral) fascia?
the connective tissue that is often referred to as adipose– it’s been the skin
What’s the difference between a free radical and an ion?
ion: atom has gained or lost an electron, making the number of electrons and protons unequal, and giving the atom a positive or negative charge
radical: an atom with at least one unpaired electron, so although there is an equal number of protons and electrons, the radical is very unstable
What are the muscle types, and for each:
- striated?
- shape?
- voluntary or involuntary?
