Ziman (1996): Is science losing its objectivity?

Question 1

What is needed in order to understand the essence of science?

Answer 1

In order to understand the essence of science, it needs to be broken down into its component parts and maybe updated.

Question 2

What general principles does the type of knowledge that science produces generally satisfy?

Answer 2

reliance on observations
explanatory power
universality
objectivity

Question 3

Why does the author criticise these principles?

Answer 3

These principles are abstract, impersonal and does not give a any information on how this knowledge can be used or is practical. For a large par, academia has fostered undirected research that completely disregards practical use.

Question 4

What did Merton (1942) suggest about these principles?

Answer 4

Merton (1942) suggests that these practices follow a set of unwritten social norms which summarise social characteristics of academic science

Question 5

List these unwritten social norms Merton (1942) posed which summarise social characteristics of academic science (5)

Answer 5

1. Communalism
2. Universality
3. Disinterest
4. Originality
5. Scepticism

Question 6

What is meant by the social norm of communalism?

Answer 6

States that research should be regarded as public knowledge and covers all practices involved the communication of research to other scientists, students, and the rest of the world. This stresses the role of observations and experience and underpins scientific realism and empiricism.

Question 7

What is involved in the social norm of universality?

Answer 7

Demands that contributions to science should not be excluded because nationality, religion, social status, etc. This proposition implies that scientific findings, theories, hypotheses, etc should be general enough so that it can apply to any cultural setting. Thus, abstract theories that claim to explain and unify a wide variety of phenomena are born.

Question 8

What is involved in the social norm of disinterest?

Answer 8

The idea that scientists should have a neutral and impersonal stance so that no material interests can prejudice their findings. Thus, they hide their own enthusiasm for their own ideas.

Question 9

What is involved in the social norm of originality?

Answer 9

In order to keep science progressive and open to intellectual novelty, academic scientists are expected to be original in their choice of research problems and techniques

Question 10

What is involved in the social norm of skepticism?

Answer 10

Stresses the systematic testing of research claims in terms of rational qualities such as logical consistency and practical reliability.

Question 11

What came first: these social norms or philosophical principles?

Answer 11

Uncertain; It can be argued that these social norms have naturally developed as scientists attempt to apply these principles to their research. However, it can also be argued that these social norms and practices determine the principles that regulate the type of knowledge that is produced. Generally, these norms and principles are complementary aspects.

Question 12

Why does the author claim that the current state of science does not fulfil the philosophical ideal of a unified science.

Answer 12

The way in which research is organized influences what is seen as scientific knowledge within any given moment. Academic science is currently divided into disciplines (i.e. where scientists acquire theoretical framework, codes of practice, and technical methods), which is further divided into narrow research specialties (i.e. helps satisfy the norm of originality). As a result of this division, knowledge is usually divided and does not fulfil the philosophical ideal of a unified science.

Question 13

Why do the authors posit that science may start producing different tyoes of knowledge than when it started

Answer 13

Academic science is currently rapidly changing. This change is not only scientific and technological but it is changing it the way it operates. Science’s dedication to originality are driving the field into new modes of activity.

Additionally, more stakeholders are involved not as academic science has grown too large and too expensive to go its own way. This research is currently mainly funded by governments who are imposing strict financial limits on research. The change is so sociologically and philosophically different to its origins that it may begin to produce different types of knowledge.

Question 14

What do the authors mean by mode 1 and mode 2?

Answer 14

The academic mode of knowledge production is being systematically replaced (from mode 1 to mode 2; ‘post academic science’). This new mode of knowledge production is not so much directed as producing knowledge but directed towards solving specific problems.

Question 15

According to the author, what will stay untouched in science and what is changing regarding their philosophies of research?

Answer 15

While the operating philosophy of research (observation, theory, experimentation, etc) will stay untouched, the norm of communalism is being reinforced by the increasing speed, size, and complexity of electronic communication. While this increases the rate in which researchers communicate with each other it also makes it so that everything a scientist publishes is immediately identified as “intellectual property” which may be kept secret for commercial reasons. Thus, academic science would no longer be committed to the principle that knowledge should be public.

Question 16

What does Ziman state about the position that science could provide provide a universally applicable answer to every possible question?

Answer 16

According to Ziman (1996), the position that science could provide a universally applicable answer to every possible question was always untenable.

Question 17

What does Ziman posit about post-academic science and realism?

Answer 17

Despite post-academic science abandoning universalism, it does not mean that scientists will reject operational realism. Although it will still harbour a considerable amount of research that is not practical, this research will still be firmly rooted in the real world and the belief that it is stable and unchanging.

Question 18

What does Ziman posit will happen to how it is decided which problems need solving?

Answer 18

Post-academic science will change which problems need investigation from an individual activity to a collective one. Scientists will be expected to work together on problems they did not personally set and will mainly be rewarded by their contribution to the success of their team.

Question 19

How has academic science has always worked on “Darwinian principles”?

Answer 19

Scientists do research and offer results on many different problems with knowledge advancement in many unforeseen directions.

Question 20

How will post academic science stray from these darwinian principles? What consequences will this have?

Answer 20

On the other hand, post-academic science will focus on well-designed, non-redundant, and practical research projects. However, this closes the doors to revolutionary progress as outlandish projects would not be accepted.

Question 21

What does Ziman claim could be the most ‘radical feature’ of post academic science?

Answer 21

Within the context of application, all problems require a multidisciplinary approach. The most radical feature of post-academic science could be it unselfconscious pluralism. Post academic science would welcome conceptual diversity and not be fearful of possible inconsistencies, as long as it is the best solution to a particular problem.

Question 22

What would this pragmatism allow for according to Ziman?

Answer 22

This pragmatism would allow for academic science to merger with knowledge and belief systems that do not share the same intellectual values or standards of “good science”. Specialists from different disciplines can come together to assemble a mosaic of paradigms, techniques, and expertise.

Question 23

What negative aspect does Ziman see in this increase in collaboration?

Answer 23

This mosaic may not be stable and may not be built on sound intellectual principles.

Question 24

Why may the practicalism of post-academic science not free it?

Answer 24

The practicalism of post-academic science may not free it but put it in the hands of bodies that are even more fragmented and restrictive. Problems that need solutions are set and funded by already existing organisational bodies (e.g. companies, government, health services, etc). Thus, it can become more difficult to begin research on a problem that is not on somebody’s agenda who can help fund that research

Question 25

What does the article comment on regarding the process of peer review?

Answer 25

Post-academic science will focus on quality control of people, projects, and performance rather than peer review, so greater importance may be attached to managerial skills. The test of practical utility does not work in basic research and organised skepticism is the only real protection against persistent error. Hence, the greatest threat to the reliability of scientific knowledge could be obsessive monitoring of the accountability and performance of researchers at the expense of systematic intellectual criticism of their claims

Question 26

Where does Ziman claim a certain amount of intellectual uncertainty is inevitable?

Answer 26

A certain amount of intellectual uncertainty is inevitable in areas where post-academic science becomes entangled with “trans-epistemic” issues such as questions containing social, environmental, and humanistic values.

Question 27

Where does Ziman think the majority of research will take place? Is this a good or bad thing?

Answer 27

Research will mostly remain as employees of universities, government labs, foundations, or companies. Though this may seem attractively unbureaucratic it will be heavily capital-intensive as it will continue to be funded and managed by complex governmental bodies, large public institution, and private corporation. This might bias research as questions set to be answered are in the hands of those that fund the research.

Question 28

These difference between mode 1 and mode 2 of knowledge production are reminiscent of what types of research?

Answer 28

These difference between mode 1 and mode 2 of knowledge production are reminiscent of the distinction between “pure” and “applied” research. Mode 2 can be described as a post-industrial version of applied science.

Question 29

Ziman claims that this evolution between from mode 1 to mode 2, might just be a closing gap between pure and applied research. Name the three factors he posited are working towards a single post-academic culture

Answer 29

1. Scientific developments
   Blurring the difference between fundamental and exploitable discoveries.
2. Technological developments
   Generate heterogenous hybrid teams that override institutional loyalties.
3. Economic conditions
   Forcing the two cultures into the same organizational mould.

Question 30

What practical issues does this merger pose?

Answer 30

This merger raises many practical issues such as funding, disciplinary identity, criteria of excellence, career aspirations, intellectual property rights, etc. . It also merges two very different sets of structural principles, of which, mode 2 seems to be in the lead to replace mode 1. The academic ethos may exist as an attractive but somewhat outdated ideology

Question 31

The philosophical background for science is often taken for granted, Ziman has attempted to show that it is closely tied to the manner in which research is organised and carried out. Why is this relevant?

Answer 31

Changes in the social framework of science eventually lead to changes in its philosophical principles.

Question 32

How awful will these changes be?

Answer 32

Most of the changes that are likely to happen are mild and benign and some are even needed correction to excess “scientism”. These changes also carry benefits such as (1) rescuing scientific imagination from entrenched specialisation and (2) localised pragmatism compensate for the fragmented theoretical standard of scientific validity.

Question 33

Despite these benefits, what aspect of science is ‘under serious threat?’

Answer 33

Despite these benefits, scientific objectivity is in serious threat. Post-academic science is getting rid of practices that support the norm of disinterest. Researchers will no longer be protected from direct industrial interests or commercial influence. Their work will mostly focus on matters with high-priority social values.

Question 34

We’ll lose some objectivity, so what? You wanna cry about it?

Answer 34

Scientific objectivity is what makes science valuable to society. Its well-deserved reputation for impartiality on material issues gives science a unique role in settling factual disputes bro