Year 2 chapter 4 Issues and debates Flashcards
1
Q
Outline universality and bias
A
- Psychologists are influenced by social and historical context
- Bias may be an inevitable part of the process
- Undermines claims of universality- Universality - Any aspect of human behaviour that can be applied to everyone despite difference in upbringing and experiences
2
Q
Referring to an example, outline alpha bias
A
- Alpha bias within research that exaggerates or overestimated of the difference the difference between sexes.
- More likely to devalue females in relation to their male counterparts- Social biological theory - Wilson (1975) - explains human sexual attraction and behaviour through the principle of ‘survival efficiency’
- Males want to impregnate as many women as possible to increase the chance of his genes being passed on.
- Females have a better chance of passing on genes by ensuring the healthy survival of the few offspring she’ll be able to produce
- Sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determine but females who show the same behaviour it’s regarded as going against their nature - exaggerating the differences between sexes
- Social biological theory - Wilson (1975) - explains human sexual attraction and behaviour through the principle of ‘survival efficiency’
3
Q
Referring to an example outline beta bias
A
- Beta bias is research that minimises or ignores the differences between sexes
- Occurs when one of the sexes isn’t included in the research but findings are assumed to apply to both- An example of beta bias is research into fight or flight response
- Evidence used to formulate the theory was based solely on male animals, because their hormones don’t fluctuate as much as females. Was assumed to be universal response to danger
- Modern research has shown that females respond differently
- Taylor (2002) - Female biology has evolved to inhibit fight or flight and instead they shift attention to caring for their young and forming defensive networks with other females
- An example of beta bias is research into fight or flight response
4
Q
Briefly outline androcentrism
A
- A consequence of beta bias
- Conclusions drawn from research solely on males are seen as ‘normal’
- Behaviour that deviates from this is seen as abnormal
- Leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and pathologized
- Taken as psychological instability or disorder
- Feminists objected to the diagnostic category PMS on the grounds that it stereotypes and trivialises females experienced
- Brescoll and Uhlman (2008)
- Claims PMS is a social construct which medicalises female emotion, especially anger, by explaining it in hormonal terms.
- Male anger is often see as a reasonable response to external pressure
- Claims PMS is a social construct which medicalises female emotion, especially anger, by explaining it in hormonal terms.
- Conclusions drawn from research solely on males are seen as ‘normal’
5
Q
What are some of the implications of gender bias?
A
- Gender biased research creates misleading assumptions about females
- Research fails to challenge negative stereotypes and validates discriminatory behaviour- Provides a scientific justification to deny women opportunities
- Men set standards for normal behaviour
- Travis (1993)’ it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’
- Is not just methodological problem but may have damaging consequences that affect the lives of women
6
Q
Outline culture bias
A
- 1992, 63% of the world’s 56,000 psychology researchers were American males
- Baron and Byrne released a book on social psychology
- 94% of the studies referenced in the book were conducted in north America
- Psychology is mainly the study of white American males
- Despite restricting their research to certain parts of the world psychology researchers claim to have discovered universal ‘facts’ about human behaviour
- Baron and Byrne released a book on social psychology
7
Q
Outline universality and bias referring to culture bias
A
- In general mainstream psychology ignore differences between cultures as an important influence on human behaviour
- Universal truths may not be universal
- For example assuming findings about western cultures applies to the whole world- ‘Norm’ is judged based off the point of view of one culture
- Because of this differences between cultures will be seen as abnormal
- ‘Norm’ is judged based off the point of view of one culture
8
Q
Outline ethnocentrism
A
- Believes in the superiority of one’s own culture
- In research this translates to behaviours that don’t conform to western models as being deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
- Ainsworth’s study is criticised as it only reflects the norms ad values of America
- The strange situation has proven to be an inappropriate measure of attachment for non-American children
- In research this translates to behaviours that don’t conform to western models as being deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
9
Q
Outline ethnocentrism
A
- Believes in the superiority of one’s own culture
- In research this translates to behaviours that don’t conform to western models as being deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
- Ainsworth’s study is criticised as it only reflects the norms and values of America
- The strange situation has proven to be an inappropriate measure of attachment for non-American children
- In research this translates to behaviours that don’t conform to western models as being deficient, unsophisticated or underdeveloped.
10
Q
Outline what’s meant by cultural relativism
A
- An example of imposed atic
- When assuming the US-based model of classifying attachment norm Ainsworth imposed her own cultural upon the world- Berry (1969)
- Found a distinction between etic and emic approaches
- Etic - looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and attempts to describe behaviour that is universal
- Emic - functions from within a culture and tries to identify behaviours specific to that culture
- Berry argues that most psychology imposes etic approach e.g. trying to claim universal beahviours
- Often they come from emic research within a single culture
- Suggest researchers should be more mindful of differences between cultures
- Does what they’ve discovered only make sense from within the perspective of that culture
11
Q
Is it completely possible to separate culture relativism and universality?
A
- Just because imposed etic is a thing doesn’t mean that’s there’s no such thing as universal behaviour
- Ekman (1989) suggests that all facial expressions for basic emotions, e.g. happiness and smiling, are the same across all of humanity
- Critics of Ainsworth shouldn’t deny the existence of universal human behaviours
- E.g. imitation and interactional syncrony- Full understanding of humans requires research to be done both on universal behaviours and the variations between groups
12
Q
Research into individualist and collectivist cultures has shown that the difference may not be as prevalent as it once was. Explain this
A
- Reference to culture is often within the context of individualist-collectivist distinction
- Individualist cultures - Western countries thought to value personal freedom and independence
- Collectivist cultures - eastern countries places emphasis on interdependence and the need of the group- However in the age of global communication and increase interconnectedness that ‘lazy’ and simplistic distinction between cultures no longer applies
- Takano and Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies that compared that usa and Japan found no evidence of a distinction between individualist and collectivism
- Culture bias may be less of an issue than it once was
13
Q
Explain the cultural issue of unfamiliarity with research traditions
A
- When conducting research in western cultures the patient’s familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed
- The same knowledge and ‘faith’ in scientific testing may not extend to cultures that don’t have the same historical experience of research
- Demand characteristics may be exaggerated when working with members of the local population
- May result in adverse effects on the validity of the research
- Demand characteristics may be exaggerated when working with members of the local population
- The same knowledge and ‘faith’ in scientific testing may not extend to cultures that don’t have the same historical experience of research
14
Q
A strength of cross cultural research is that it can challenge implicit assumptions. Explain this
A
- Cross cultural research challenges the typical western ways of viewing the world
- Can promote a greater sensitivity to individual differences and cultural relativism in the future
- Counters the charge of ‘scientific racism’- The conclusions from scientific research are likely to have more validity if the researchers take into account culture has on the findings
15
Q
Briefly outline what is meant by free will
A
- Humans are seen as self-determining and free to choose their own thoughts and actions
- Doesn’t deny that biological and environmental factors may affect a persons behaviour
- Implies that we’re able to reject these forces and we’re the masters of our own destiny- Free will is the view of human behaviour advocated by the humanistic approach
