Year 1 Chapter 4 approaches in psychology

Question 1

Outline the work of Wilhelm Wundt

Answer 1

• Opened the first ever lab dedicated to the study of psychology
  
  • Wanted to describe the nature of consciousness
  • he and his co-workers record their thoughts hoping to break them down into their constituent parts (introspection)

Question 2

Outline some strengths of Wundt’s work

Answer 2

• Used some scientific methods
  
  • High controlled conditions, it used the same stimulus every time
  • Used standardised instructions, this allows it to be repeated
  • Marked the separation of modern psychology from it’s philosophical roots

Question 3

Describe the emergence of psychological science

Answer 3

• The scientific status of introspection was being questioned by behaviourists
  
  • Watson’s did not like that introspection produced subjective data
  • Can’t be used to develop general principles
  • Watson believed psychology should focus on things that can be observed and measured rather than private mental processes
  • Watson and Skinner brought the language, rigor and methods of natural sciences into psychology
  • Used carefully controlled lab studies that would go on to dominate discipline, many psychologist still use the experimental method

Question 4

Outline the classical conditioning as an explanation for behaviour

Answer 4

-Learning by association
us –> ur
us + ns –> ur
cs(ns) –> cr

Question 5

outline operant conditioning as an example for behaviour

Answer 5

• Learning by reinforcement and punishment
  
  • Positive and negative reinforcement - explain
  • Punishment - explain
  • Reinforced behaviour is repeated and punished behaviour dies out

Question 6

Describe one study where classical conditioning was investigated

Answer 6

• Pavlov’s dog - to assess learning through association
  
  • Noticed dog’s would salivate at food
  • Paired the food with the sound of the bell
  • The dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell

Question 7

Describe one study in which operant conditioning was investigated

Answer 7

• Skinner’s rats
  - Investigated the role of reinforcement on behaviour
  
  • Rats in a box would get a food pellet every time they press a lever so would repeat the behaviour
  • In addition they would learn to repeat behaviour to avoid unpleasant stimulus
  • Rats learned through reinforcement to perform behaviours

Question 8

Outline some real-life applications/support for behaviourism

Answer 8

• Token economy systems in prisons
  
  • Prisoners earn tokens by behaving how the guards wanted
  • Shows operant conditioning in action

Question 9

Behaviourism has been credited with increasing the scientific credibility of psychology. Explain this

Answer 9

• Uses the language of the natural sciences –> focuses on measuring observable behaviour within controlled settings
  
  • Emphasises the importance of scientific processes - replicability and objectivity
  • Can be used to create general laws of behaviour

Question 10

Explain determinism in relation to the behaviourist approach

Answer 10

• Behaviourism suggest that all behaviour comes as a response to interactions with the environment
  
  • Doesn’t take into account other influence - not everybody acts without thinking - there is proof that we can choose our actions
  • Limitation of the approach

Question 11

Behaviourism is seen as mechanistic view of behaviour. Explain this, is there a better way of viewing behaviour

Answer 11

• Humans and animals are seen as passive (machine like) responders to the environment
  
  • No conscience or insight
  • Cognitive approach and social learning theory - emphasis on mental processes
  • These allow us to decide how to respond to stimulus
  • This is a limitation of behaviourism

Question 12

Out line the basic assumptions of social learning theory

Answer 12

• Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation

- Vicarious reinforcement (indirect reinforcement of behaviour)

Question 13

What is meant by mediational processes? Use an example in your answer

Answer 13

• According to SLT mediational processes are cognitive processes that allow us to choose whether or not to take an action
  
  • Attention - the extent to which we notice behaviour
  • Retention - how well we remember the behaviour
  • Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour, usually based on the response to the action
  • Motor reproduction - the ability to reproduce the action
  • Seeing a bully’s behaviour; remembering it; seeing the positive outcome for the bully; being able to carry out the behaviour

Question 14

What is meant by identification in relation to SLT? Use an example in your answer

Answer 14

• People are more likely to imitate behaviour of people they identify with (role models)
  
  • These role models are usually similar in age, gender, charismatic and attractive
  • little brother is going to imitate the big brother

Question 15

Describe one study where SLT was investigated

Answer 15

• Bandura (1961)
  
  • Children observed adult behaving violently towards a bobo doll
  • When put in the same position the children imitate the behaviour they saw
  • Demand characteristics (doll is designed to be hit)

Question 16

Why does SLT provide a much more comprehensive account of behaviour?

Answer 16

• Behaviourist suggests humans have no choice in their behaviour
  
  • Behaviour = stimulus –> response
  • SLT recognises the importance of cognitive factors
  • SLT suggests that the mediational processes help to choose whether or not a behavior is worth carrying out

Question 17

How does SLT compare to behaviourism in terms of determinism?

Answer 17

• Takes cognitive factors into account
  
  • Gives a much more comprehensive account of behaviour
  • Much less deterministic than behaviourism
  • Reciprocal vs. environmental determinism

Question 18

Outline two limitations of SLT

Answer 18

• Underestimates the influence of biological factors
  - Testosterone, boys were much more violent than girls in Bandura’s study
  
  • Over reliance on lab studies
    
    • Demand characteristics could be an issue (Bobo doll study)

Question 19

Outline two features of the cognitive approach

Answer 19

• Approach focuses on internal mental processes
  
  • Direct contrast to behaviourism
  • Interested in memory, perception and thinking - private processes so they can’t be measured or observed
  • Inferences made about behaviour using models

Question 20

What do cognitive psychologists mean by inferences. Use an example of behaviour in your answer

Answer 20

• The process by which cognitive psychologists draw conclusion about mental processes
  
  • This is based on behaviour observed
  • E.g. memory - psychologist observe it in action
    
    • They make inferences about duration and capacity

Question 21

Discuss one key difference between the behaviourists approach and cognitive approach in investigating behaviour

Answer 21

• Behaviourism - focuses on observable and measurable behaviour
  
  • Uses lab studies and rigorous scientific methods
  • Cognitive - focuses on internal and private mental processes
  • Uses theoretical and computer models to make inferences about mental processes based on behaviour

Question 22

Outline the role of schema in cognitive psychology

Answer 22

• Schema are bundles of information that people have about events, concepts, situations and people
  
  • Schema help us to interpret information from our environment and help us to develop a set of beliefs and expectation

Question 23

What is machine reductionism and why is it a criticism of the cognitive approach?

Answer 23

• The cognitive approach uses computer models to make inferences about mental processes
  
  • There are many similarities between computers and the human mind
  • Using these models ignores human emotion
  • For example research has shown human memory is influenced by anxiety

Question 24

The cognitive approach has been praised for being less deterministic than other approaches. Explain this - refer to the other approaches in your answer

Answer 24

• The cognitive approach is founded on soft determinism
  
  • It recognises free will, however it states that we can only exercise free will within the realm of what we know
  • This is “soft” in comparison to the behaviourist approach for example
  • Behaviourism = environmental determinism - we are passive responders to the environment - no free will - much harder form of determinism

Question 25

Without reference to determinism, outline 2 strengths of the cognitive approach

Answer 25

• Has been applied to a wide range of real life scenarios
  
  • The explanation and treatment of depression
  • Explanation through focusing on negative and irrational thoughts and treatment through challenging the irrational thoughts
  • Scientific credibility
  • Rigorous and controlled methods- lab studies to produce reliable and objective data
  • The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has allowed the fields of biology and cognitive psychology to advance

Question 26

Why has it been argued that cognitive psychology may lack external validity?

Answer 26

• Cognitive psychologist are only able to make inferences about mental processes based on observations
  
  • Can lead to cognitive psychology being quite abstract and theoretical
  • Studies on mental processes are often carried out with quite artificial stimuli

Question 27

Briefly outline the assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 27

• Everything that is psychological is first biological –> look at biological structures to understand behavior
  
  • Gene, neurochemestry and nervous system
  • Understanding the brain structure and chemistry means we will be able to understand thoughts and behavior
  • The mind lives in the brain - everything has a physical basis

Question 28

Outline how behavioral geneticists investigated genetic based behaviour

Answer 28

• Twin studies
  
  • Concordance rates - how similar the twins are in particular traits
  • If mono zygotic have a higher concordance rate than Di zygotic twins it’s implied that the cause is genetics rather than the environment
  • This is because mono zygotic twins share 100% of their DNA

Question 29

Identify and discuss two strengths of the biological approach in psychology

Answer 29

• Scientific methods of investigation
  - fMRIs, twin and family studies - very precise
  - Accurate and measurable data
  - Reliable
  • Real life application
    
    • Increased understanding of biochemical processes has lead to the development of psychoactive drugs
  • These have helped a number of people deal with conditions such as depression and schizophrenia
  • This is a strength because it has revolutionized treatment for patients and has lead them to be able to live normal lives

Question 30

Why is correlation vs causation a problem for the biological approach?

Answer 30

• Determining cause
  
  • Explanations for mental illnesses is because of changes in neurotransmitters
  • Evidence come from drug trials, if the drug reduces symptoms it’s assumed that the lack of that specific neurochemical is the cause
  • This is like claiming that a lack of paracetamol cause headachs
  • An association between two variables has been established but it doesn’t mean that one causes the other

Question 31

What is a genotype?

Answer 31

-A particular set of genes a person possesses

Question 32

What is a phenotype?

Answer 32

-A specific set of characteristics a person shows based on genetics and the environment

Question 33

Explain what is meant by evolution and behavior. Use one example of one human or non-human example of evolution and behavior.

Answer 33

• Evolution and behavior refers to Darwin’s theory of natural selection
  
  • This means that any behavior that improves chances of survival will be passed down to future generations
  • E.g. a animal that’s a slightly different color to the rest of the species may find that it has better camouflage
  • This trait would be passed onto the next generation because this animal would much more likely survive due to it being able to hide better

Question 34

Why is the biological approach deterministic and what are the wider implications of this?

Answer 34

• sees human behavior as being controlled entirely by internal biological processes over which we have no control
  
  • This implies that we aren’t responsible for our own behavior (So people who commit crimes can’t be held responsible, so can’t be punished for it)

Question 35

Why is it argued that the nature and nurture cannot be separated in the biological approach?

Answer 35

• MZ and DZ twins and families share genetic similarities –> biological approach states that similarities in behavior are caused by genetics
  
  • It ignores that they’re raised in the same environment (a confounding variable)
  • Difficult to establish causality because it is not 100% possible to untangle the roles of genes and environment

Question 36

Identify two parts of the human nervous system

Answer 36

• Peripheral nervous system

- Central nervous system

Question 37

What is the role of the central nervous system?

Answer 37

• brain
  - Center of all consciousness
  - Cerebral cortex is responsible for higher functions
  
  • Spinal cord
    
    • Extension of the brain - responsible for reflexis

Question 38

Outline the function of the peripheral nervous system

Answer 38

• Transmits signal to and from the central nervous system
  
  • Divided into two parts;
  • The autonomic nervous system, which is responsible for maintaining vital functions (e.g. heart beat)
  • The somatic nervous system, which control muscle movement and receives information from the senses

Question 39

Outline the role of adrenaline in fight or flight response

Answer 39

-It triggers physiological changes in the body (e.g increased heart rate) needed for fight or flight

Question 40

Define what is meant by the endocrine system

Answer 40

• The endocrine system works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in the body
  
  • The endocrine system works much slower than the nervous system, but has very widespread and profound effects
  • It’s responsible for instructing various glands to begin releasing hormones into the blood stream

Question 41

The endocrine system is made up of various glands which release hormones. Define gland and give one example

Answer 41

• A glandis an organ in the body which synthesizes substances such as hormones
  
  • The thyroid gland, for example, produces thyroxine which effects cells in the heart, increasing heart rate
  • It also effects other cells in the body increasing metabolic rate

Question 42

Define the term hormone and give one example

Answer 42

• Chemical that circulate in the blood stream and only affect target organs. They are produced in very large quantities and disappear very quickly. There effects are very powerful
  
  • Testosterone

Question 43

Outline the difference between the nervous system and the endocrine system

Answer 43

• One difference between the two is the time taken for the systems to respond to the stimuli
  
  • The nervous system reacts from electrical and chemical transmissions, the response is near to instant
  • The endocrine system reacts much more slowly, but therefore much longer lasting and widespread effects

Question 44

Explain the actions of the autonomic nervous system in fight or flight response

Answer 44

• Threat detected
  
  • Sympathetic nervous system triggers the release of adrenaline into the bloodstream
  • Causes the body to ready for fight or flight
  • After the threat has passed the parasympathetic nervous system kicks in to put the body back to rest

Question 45

What is a neuron?

Answer 45

-Neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals in the nervous system

Question 46

Outline the function of motor, relay and other sensory neurons

Answer 46

• Motor neurons connect the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles and glands
  
  • Relay neurons connect sensory neurons to motor neurons and other relay neurons
  • Sensory neurons connect the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system

Question 47

Describe the structure of a neuron

Answer 47

• The cell body includes a nucleus which contains the genetic material of the cell
  
  • Dendrites are branch like structures that carry nerve impulses from neighboring neurons towards the cell body
  • The axon carries impulses away from the cell body down the length of the neuron
  • The myelin sheath covers the axon to protect and speed up transmission of electric impulses
  • Nodes of Ranvier are gaps between the myelin sheath these speed up the transmission of the electrical impulses by forcing it to jump the gap
  • Terminal buttons are at the end of the axon; these communicate with the next neuron across the synapse

Question 48

Explain and distinguish between electrical and chemical transmissions in relation to neurons

Answer 48

• Electric transmission happens within the neuron. This changes the neuron from being negatively charged to positively charged when activated by a stimulus This creates the electric impulses that travel to the end of the neuron
  
  • Chemical transmission occurs between neurons. When the electric impulse reaches the end of a neuron it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, which diffuse across the synapse

Question 49

Explain the function of neurotransmitters, identify one in your answer

Answer 49

• A neurotransmitter is a chemical released from the presynaptic nerve that relays a signal across the synapse
  
  • The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse and is taken in at the receptor site
  • The chemical message is then converted back into an electric one
  • For example, acetylocholine is found where a motor neuron meets a muscle and causes the muscle to contract

Question 50

In terms of synaptic transmission, explain whit is meant by inhibition and excitation

Answer 50

• Serotonin has an inhibitory effect of the receiving neuron by causing the neuron to become more negatively charged
  
  • This results in it being less likely to fire
  • Adrenaline has an excitatory effect on the neuron making it more positively charged
  • This make the neuron more likely to fire

Question 51

Outline the structure of personality according to the psychodynamic approach

Answer 51

• Personality is made of three parts
  
  • The id - the pleasure principle, wants what it wants when it wants it
  • The ego - the reality principle for the id and the super ego, works out realistic options for the time and resolves conflict between the id and super ego
  • The super ego - the morality principle, works out what’s right and wrong

Question 52

What is meant by the ‘unconscious’ in the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 52

• Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious, biological instincts that influence our behaviour without us realizing
  
  • The unconscious can also block out traumatic events from the past, it represses them
  • The preconscious mind is what we are only aware of with our limited control over our thoughts
  • The unconscious mind can slip through when we’re dreaming or through parapraxes (saying something out loud that we thought we we’re thinking)

Question 53

Why is the psychodynamic approach deterministic and what type of determinism is it?

Answer 53

• All behaviour, current and future, is determined by the id, ego and super ego
  
  • Freud believed that no behaviour was accidental and all had deeper symbolic meaning
  • No free will
  • Psychic determinism
  • All behaviour is controlled via the unconscious but it provides the illusion of free will as we’re not aware of the things that are in control

Question 54

Identify and discuss two limitations of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 54

• The case study method
  - Freud theory’s are based on a few specific case studies of individual patients
  - This suggests that his theories cannot be applied universally because his studies were based on a few psychologically abnormal people
  - Freud’s interpretation was very individualistic in that no other psychologist would’ve come to the same conclusions
  
  • The theory cannot be falsified and is weak
    
    • While Freud’s theory cannot be disproved at this moment in time it can also not be proved, this being a weakness of the theory
  • The psychodynamic approach is considered pseudoscience instead of being actual science

Question 55

Name one strength of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 55

• A strength of the psychodynamic approach is it’s influence and explanatory power
  
  • Freud’s theory had a huge impact on psychology
  • It’s used to explain a wide variety of phenomena including personality development and gender
  • It also focuses on our connections with others such as family and friends, in child hood and in later life

Question 56

Identify and explain the practical application that came with the psychodynamic approach

Answer 56

• Responsible for the birth of a new therapy - psychoanalysis
  
  • Employs a wide range of techniques to access the unconscious
  • Forerunner to many modern-day psychotherapies

Question 57

Name one of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development. Include what behavior an adult might demonstrate in relation to this stage

Answer 57

• Stage - Oral
  
  • Ages - 0 to 1
  • Focus - mouth, tongue and lips
  • Major development - Weaning off breastfeeding or formula
  • Adult fixations - Smoking & overeating

Question 58

What do psychodynamic psychologists mean by a defense mechanism?

Answer 58

-The ego resolves conflict between the id and the super ego using defense mechanisms, such as repression and distraction

Question 59

Outline two features of humanistic perspective in psychology

Answer 59

• Self-actualisation - every person has the innate desire to achieve their full potential - personal growth is an essential and innate part of being human
  
  • Congruence - in order for personal growth to be achieved a persons view of self and their idea self must be broadly equivalent

Question 60

What do humanistic psychologist mean by conditions of worth? Give an example of how a parent might set conditions of worth on their child

Answer 60

• Lack of unconditional love / unconditional positive regard
  
  • A parent who sets conditions or regulations on their love are storing up psychological problems for that child in the future
  • For example if a parent says ‘I’ll only love you if’

Question 61

Identify why the humanistic approach is considered one of the only approaches that isn’t reductionist. Refer to other approaches in your answer

Answer 61

• Humanistic approach rejects the idea of breaking down behaviour
  
  • Behaviourism explains behaviour in terms of simple stimulus and response and the biological approach reduces everything down to it’s basic physical parts
  • Humanists believe the only way to understand the subjective experience is to consider the whole person
  • Holism is advocated, rather than reductionism

Question 62

Explain what is meant by self-actualisation

Answer 62

• Every human has the innate tendency to fulfil their potential - this means reaching the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
  
  • Personal growth is an essential part of life - it is concerned with developing and changing to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated human being

Question 63

Explain one problem with the concept of self-actualisation

Answer 63

• Cultural dependency
  
  • Related to individualist cultures where the individual is at the centre
  • Collectivist cultures place more emphasis on the needs of the group and interdependence
  • This fact does not go well with the humanistic approach, meaning it’s mostly relevant in the culture it was developed in

Question 64

Many of the concepts used in the humanistic approach are very abstract - why is this a problem for the approach?

Answer 64

• The fact that a lot of the concepts are abstract means they’re untestable
  
  • Concepts such as congruence and self-actualisation are problematic to access under experimental conditions
  • Make objectivity and replication an issue - lower validity

Question 65

The humanistic approach has been praised for it’s positivity and for “bringing the person back to psychology” explain this and refer to other approaches in your answer

Answer 65

• Humanists promote a positive image of the human condition
  
  • Psychodynamic - Freud sees us all of us as slaves to our past and claims that we exist somewhere between ‘common unhappiness’ and ‘total despair’
  • Humanistic approach - suggests that all people are basically good and that we are all free to work towards the achievement of our potential

Question 66

What is meant by the nature vs nurture debate?

Answer 66

-The debate whether human behaviour is more influenced by inherited biological factors or by the environment

Question 67

For each approach decide whether it’s nature or nurture, if needed briefly explain why

Answer 67

• Biological approach - nature
  
  • Behaviourism and SLT - nurture
  • Psychodynamic - nature (behaviour comes form innate drives) and nurture (Relationship with parents plays a crucial role)
  • Humanistic - Nurture (parents, friends and wider society have an impact on a persons concept of self)
  • Cognitive - nature (information processing, scheme are innate) and nurture (constantly being refined through experience)

Question 68

What is meant by reductionism?

Answer 68

-The belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into its key components

Question 69

Choose three approaches and explain why they are/aren’t reductionist

Answer 69

• Behaviourism - breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus response behavior to make it easier to study in a lab
  
  • Biological - explains behaviour on a neural or genetic level
  • Cognitive - machine reductionism –> see humans as simple processors and ignores emotion
  • Psychodynamic - reduces behaviour down to innate biological behaviour, also holistic because it says that behaviour is made up of three dynamic parts
  • Humanistic - holistic –> investigates all aspects of the human involved

Question 70

What is meant by determinism?

Answer 70

-Determinism proposes that all behaviour has an internal or external cause and thus is predictable

Question 71

Choose three approaches and explain why they are/aren’t deterministic

Answer 71

• Behaviourism - environmental determinism - all behaviour is determined by external factors and is unable to be controlled
  
  • SLT - reciprocal determinism - we’re controlled by our environment and influence it in return via our behaviour
  • Biological approach - genetic determinism - most of our behaviour is determined by innate influences
  • Psychodynamic - psychic determinism - we think we have free will but this is an illusion as all of our behaviour is controlled by unconscious forces
  • Cognitive - soft determinism - we chose our behaviour but can only act within the realm of what we know
  • Humanistic - free will - we are active agents who determine our own development

Question 72

Describe how different approaches explain and treat abnormal behaviour

Answer 72

• Behaviourism
  - Maladaptive behaviour - destructive behaviour that has been reinforced
  - Treated through behavioural therapies such as systematic desensitisation and flooding
  
  • SLT
    
    • Modelling and observational learning can be used to explain how dysfunctional behaviour may be learned through the influences of dysfunctional role models
  • Psychodynamic
    
    • Anxiety disorders come from unconscious conflict, overuse of defence mechanisms and childhood trauma
    • Treatment through psychoanalysis
  • Cognitive
    
    • Faulty thinking is the cause of maladaptive behaviour
    • Treatment through identifying and eradicating faulty thoughts through cbt
  • Humanistic
    
    • Treatment through counselling
  • Biological
    
    • All abnormal behaviour is neural, chemical or genetic
    • Drug therapy to regulate chemical imbalances in the brain