Y13 Theory & Methods Flashcards

Question

Labelling/Interactionist view on Official stats

Answer 1

:( Cicourel - O.S are merely social constructs that represent the labels officials attach to people. Official statistics need to be treated as topics themselves for sociological investigation, but not as social facts! :) Interested in studying the social processes behind labels i.e. how someone ends up being labelled and becoming an official statistic. :) Interpretivists also distinguish between two types of statistics - hard and soft statistics. Soft statistics often neglect an unknown or 'dark figure' of unrecorded cases, whereas hard statistics offer a more valid picture. :( Validity issues & doesn’t capture complexity of social behaviour & may oversimplify subjective meanings.

Answer 2

:( Oakley and Graham critique the methods used to create O.S. i.e. questionnaires and structured interviews, as they see this as a 'masculine' model of research. :( O.S have an ideological function to maintain patriarchy i.e. they conceal and even legitimate gender inequality by failing to produce data on unpaid domestic labour in comparison to paid work. :( A family's social class used to be determined based on the occupation of the male head of household. In 2001this was changed so the person who rents/owns the house is now the 'household reference' person and their occupation is used instead. :( However, men are still likely to be the homeowner and earn more money so O.S continue to give a distorted view of gender and social class.

Answer 3

:( Official statistics serve the needs of capitalism. O.S are created by what Althusser calls the ideological state apparatus - a set of institutions that produce ruling-class ideology. :( Politically sensitive data is censored and not published i.e. since the 1980's data from the Census no longer includes class differences in death rates. :( The definitions used in creating O.S. also conceal the true reality of capitalism i.e. the definition of unemployment has changed over the years in order to give the impression that unemployment has decreased. :( The definition of social class is also an issue, with 'new' classes being created in order to distract people from the idea that society is based on the conflict between two opposed classes.

Answer 4

:( Take a long time so it limits the number that can be carried out. :( Produce large amounts of data which takes time to transcribe & no pre-coded answers so analysis is difficult. :) Can cross-check & clarify meanings. :) Flexibble and can explore without restrictions. :) Open ended & exploratory. :) Allow opportunities for interviewee to speak about what they think is important.

Answer 5

-Gains ‘validity through involvement’. -Interviewers probing & encouragement can help the interviewee formulate their answers more clearly & reveal their true meaning.

Answer 6

-Glaser and Strauss (1968) reject the positivist idea that research must begin with a fixed hypothesis. -Instead, they argue it is important to approach research with an open mind, otherwise you will not discover the truth about the social actors meaning. -We should build up and modify our hypothesis during the actual course of the research based on what we discover as we learn more about our subjects.

Answer 7

1. Allow researcher to be value-committed (researcher must takes side). 2. Require the researcher’s involvement rather than requiring them to be detached from their subjects. 3. Aim for equality & collaboration between the researcher & those being researched.

Answer 8

-Pawson argues there’s nothing distinctively feminist about Oakley’s approach - simply interpretivism. -However, Oakley argues that she goes beyond the interpretivist approach (ie. being involved in the women’s births). She argues her feminist approach is explicitly value-committed & always on the side of the women se reseachers in order to improve their lives. -Marx wouldn’t use these because they say everything’s controlled by the bourgeoisie and few society as under capitalist control so they’re unbothered by individual meanings since everyone’s brainwashed.

Answer 9

-Overt: when researcher reveals identity & purpose of their study. -Covert: undercover. -Participant observation: used by interprevists to gain an insight into the actors’ meanings. -Non-participant: used by positivists with structured behavioural categories.

Answer 10

-Researcher can develop & modify their ideas through the course of their research. -Also ask to see actors meanings as they develop -> more valid picture.

Answer 11

-Non-standardised or scientific methods as they’re unique & impossible to replicate or compare. -Lack of objectivity, nah be biased in favour of their subjects’ viewpoint. -Sample group is usually small & often selected haphazardly.

Answer 12

1. Written texts (ie. diaries, letters, reports, newspaper articles etc). 2. Other texts (ie. paintings film, music etc). Sociologists access these type of documents by accessing: -Public documents -Personal documents -Historical documents Interprevists value them as they see them as valid, Positivists don’t value them & believe them to not achieve RRV!

Answer 13

1. The document may **lack authenticity** - Parts of the document might be missing because of age, and we might not even be to verify who actually wrote the document. 2. The document may **lack credibility** - We may not be able to verify why somebody wrote the document, and what their motive was. We need to know if the document has been distorted for political reasons, for example, because this would mean they would put a spin on the content. 3. **Meaning** - It may be hard to interpret the meaning of the documents if they are written in an archaic language. With older documents it is not possible to get the authors to clarify what they meant if they are dead. 4. **Representativeness** - Documents may not be representative of the wider population - especially a problem with older documents. Many documents do not survive because they are not stored, and others deteriorate with age and become unusable. Other documents are deliberately withheld from researchers and the public gaze, and therefore do not become available. Also, what about people who are illiterate? - they will not be included.

Answer 14

-Positivists prefer formal content analysis because the sample is representative, categorical & coded through a tally, generating quantifiable data. -Interprevists prefer thematic because it has a more individual focus which identifies themes & identifies underlying meanings.

Answer 15

-**Value freedom:** exclusion of personal values from research. -**Value laden:** the belief that whether or not it is desirable, sociology cannot be value-free due to human nature & irs a mistake to see it as such. -**Value-committed:** importance of including personal values into research. Even the RM you use is because you believe that theory should be used to study something.

Answer 16

-Positivist sociologists Comte and Durnkehim (both Functionalists), would argue that it IS possible to achieve value-freedom in sociology, so long as we apply the POSITIVIST or scientific approach of study. -They shared the enlightenment/ modernist view of the role of sociology (to use science to improve society). → industrial period. -A Sociologists job is to discover the truth about how society works in order to solve social problems and find social facts. -Hence they need and can be objective by using scientific certainty to discover what is best for society.

Answer 17

:) Davidson & Layder, it’s possible to conduct value-free research, so long as the research is well designed & there’s no attempt to distort the findings. :( Gouldner argues value free sociology is: 1. **Impossible** as the sociologists own views, or those who are funding them are bound to be reflected in their work. 2. **Undesirable** since without values to guide research sociologists are merely selling their services to the highest bidder.

Answer 18

According to this approach, sociology CANNOT be value free even if we want it be - therefore research is laden (filled) with values (subjectiveness). This is due to two things: 1. Funding bodies 2. Personal beliefs Weber: some parts of the research process can be value laden **(subjective)** & some must be objective.

Answer 19

1. Values as a guide to research- Weber believed that values are essential in selecting what to study. 2. Data collection and hypothesis testing- must be unbiased and objective as possible when collecting the facts, keeping our values and prejudices out of the process. 3. Values in the interpretation of data- Values are important when we interpret data as we understand the data from a theoretical standpoint. 4. Values and the sociologist as a citizen- Weber believed that sociologists need to take mor responsibility for the impact their research may have on others.

Answer 20

:( Gomm argues that 'a value free Sociology is impossible... the very idea is unsociological'. Sociologists react to political, economic and social events. Gomm further suggests that when the sociologist attempts to divorce themselves from their own values to be scientific, they are merely adopting another set of values - not miraculously becoming 'value free'.

Answer 21

-According to this approach sociology SHOULD NOT be value free, values are needed to guide and drive a Sociologists. -Myrdal (1969) argues that we should not just state our values that we should openly take sides. -ie. Marxist view

Answer 22

1. By 1950s sociologists had become 'sell outs' - doing research for the highest bidder. 2. The purpose of sociology is to highlight the inequalities of the capitalist system and provide evidence of the exploitative nature of capitalism, it is only through this that we can bring about it's end. Therefore our values must be involved in our research!!

Answer 23

-Spender (1985) would argue that they key to sociological research is to explore the way in which males dominate within society. -The Result? To expose the truth and free women from patriarchy!

Answer 24

1. Feminist research starts with a strong belief-that male dominance exists in all areas of life. 2. They believe women's feelings should be at the centre of research in sociology. 3. The hierarchal division between the researcher and those being researched should be broken down. 4. The overall aim of feminist research should be to liberate women.

Answer 25

Postmodernists such as **LYOTARD (1984) & BAUDRILLARD (1988)** argue that the whole process of sociological or scientific thinking is actually based on a set of values itself. -Sociology is derived from a set of values, which are no more true than any other set of values... why is this even a debate!? -Foucault argues that the VALUE-FREE process itself is actually based on a set of values of the powerful in society. -Being 'value free' is a set of values in itself!!

Answer 26

1. **Empirical** - we can count and measure information. 2. **Testable** - scientific experiments can be repeated and retested. 3. **Theoretical** - science seeks causal relationships and doesn't rely simply on describing. 4. **Cumulative** - It builds on previous knowledge and moves forward our understanding of the world. 5. **Objective** - personal feelings, prejudices etc. have no place in science. It has to be unbiased.

Answer 27

-There is a huge influence of science in society today - look at all our technological and medical advantages! -Science as we understand it today, is a product of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment is an eighteenth century intellectual movement?whose three central concepts were the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress. -Comte, Durkheim & Marx were all advocates for the enlightenment and believed we could achieve this through studying society SCIENTIFICALLY in order to control social issues i.e. poverty and eradicate them. -The enlightenment brought about a new historical period - MODERNITY. -Theories of modernity believed in the idea of RATIONALLY studying the world and making generalisations as to its nature. -Science as a KNOWLEDGE CLAIM came to replace RELIGION which had previously explained our existence.

Answer 28

-To discover social facts/general laws inductive reasoning needs to be used. -**Induction** involves gathering data about the world through measurement/observations. -A hypothesis is then created. -Positivists then aim to verify a theory, that is, prove it to be true- this approach is known as verificationism. These verified claims can then be used to predict future events and to guide social policies. Observation -> Pattern -> Tentative hypothesis -> Theory (Back to start) (Examine data & create theory)

Answer 29

-To produce quantitative data to establish patterns. -Claim to discover the laws of cause and effect that determine behaviour. -Detached and objective, not allowing their own subjective feelings/ values/ prejudices to influence the research process. -Favour methods that enable objectivity i.e. quantitative methods.

Answer 30

-Date from 19th century with methodology of scientific thought. -Argued it’s possible to discover laws governing the behaviour of people in the social world. -Argued this is possible through the development of a “positive” (or scientific) philosophy of human social development. -Said this can only happen by using positivist methods to study social world. -Task of social scientists should be to discover & elaborate the laws governing the social world. -Given the assumption between the natural & social world, it’s not surprising Comte argued the way to discover laws governing the social world was to adopt the methodology of the natural sciences.

Answer 31

-Believed such an individual act could have social causes and be studied scientifically. -If **social facts** could be established, sociology would be a science. -Durkheim used quantitative stats to find patterns in suicide rate (Protestant higher than catholic because of levels of integration & regulation). -Durkheim claimed to discover a ‘real law’ - diff levels of it create diff patterns of suicide. -Shows that sociology had its own unique subject matter & these could be explained scientifically.

Answer 32

:( Douglas says O.S aren’t valid indicators of suicide & they simply relay amount of times a coroner has interpreted death as suicide. O.S contain inaccuracies and qualitative case study methods should be used to understand meaning. :( Atkinson says O.S are socially constructive & even qualitative evidence can’t infer proper meanings the deceased held.

Answer 33

-Don’t believe that sociology should model itself on natural sciences. -This theory includes action theories (ie. interactionism & labelling). -Critiques positivism’s ‘scientific’ approach.

Answer 34

-Sociology is about internal meanings, not external causes. -Sociology isn’t a science, as science only deals with laws of cause and effect & not human beings. -Unlike matter, people have crew will to exercise choice. -G.H. Mead: “Individuals are not puppets on a string, manipulated by supposed external 'social facts' as positivists believe, but autonomous beings who construct their social world through the meanings they give to it. The jobs of sociologists are to uncover these meanings.”

Answer 35

1. They put themselves in the 'other persons shoes' to try and understand their experience (verstehen). → wooer 2. They favour the use of qualitative methods which produces richer, more personal data, high in validity which gives a subjective understanding of the actor's meanings.

Answer 36

-Inductive method isn’t scientific as you create your own theories which will be biased. -Instead, the deductive method is used where you test established theories to see if they’re accurate or not. -Theory -> Hypothesis -> Observation -> Confirmation (back to start)

Answer 37

-Popper believes that a deductive method should be used so you can try to falsify the theory - always trying to prove the theory wrong, rather than right. -Science, for Popper, can never discover the final truth but the longer there is no falsification the truer it is. -Popper believes that much sociology is unscientific because it consists of theories that cannot be put to the test with the possibility that they might be falsified i.e. Marxism. -To be a science, Sociological research in principle must be falsifiable and explain large number of events for it to be 'good' research.

Answer 38

1. Rejects verificationism of positivism (not scientific or objective) & science should be based on DEDUCTION. 2. Just because something has happened 100 times, doesn’t mean it’ll happen on the 101st. Science should not VERIFY, but instead FALSIFY. 3. Society is an OPEN SOCIETY & its knowledge claims are based on EVIDENCE.

Answer 39

Sociology does not necessarily reject previous knowledge, instead it simply builds on this knowledge. -ie, Neo Marxists Althusser, Gramsci, Willis and Bourdieu have added to and adapted aspects of Karl Marx's original theories rather than rejecting and dismissing his ideas. -According to Kuhn, Sociology is CUMULATIVE but the natural sciences are not. Therefore, Sociology can NEVER be a science. -Sociology is pre-paradigmatic and divided, there is no one way of viewing the social world i.e. functionalists, Marxists, feminists, PM, etc. -There is no shared paradigm- no agreement on the fundamentals of what to study, what method to use, and so on. -On Kuhn's definition, sociology could only become scientific if such basic disagreements could be resolved (unlikely in sociology!!). -Postmodernists may argue that a paradigm sounds suspiciously like a metanarrative - a dominant view of what reality is like (PM objects to these as they silence the views of minorities and falsely claim access to the truth).

Answer 40

-Kuhn believes that 'natural science' operates within a PARADIGM -a singular accepted framework of norms and concepts regarding a particular area of knowledge. -This particular paradigm dominates scientific thinking. -Anything that does not fit into this particular paradigm (or set of ideas) is rejected. -According to Kuhn, science changes through revolutions, which create new paradigms, and reject old ones. -For most of the time the paradigm is unquestioned and this allows scientists to continue 'normal science' i.e. problem solving issues related to the paradigm. -However, anomalies in research can keep appearing which leads to challenges to the current paradigm. Scientists now begin to create a rival paradigm which begins the start of the scientific revolution.

Answer 41

:( Critics such as LAKATOS (1970) have argued that Kuhn's ideas of paradigms are far too simplistic, and that his ideas only really apply to the past. Multiple paradigms exist i.e. different branches in psychology - clinical, forensic, neurological etc. :( Modern science does tend to be more open to new ideas, and doesn't simply reject everything that has been previously uncovered.

Answer 42

-Keat and Urry (1982) and Sayer (1982) stress the similarities between sociology and certain kinds of natural sciences in terms of the degree of control the researcher has over the variables being researched. -They distinguish between open and closed systems: > Sciences such as CHEMISTRY operate in CLOSED systems, where all VARIABLES can be controlled. This allows EXPERIMENTS to take place. > HOWEVER other sciences such as METEORLOGY operate in OPEN systems, where variables cannot be controlled. E.g. METEROLOGISTS can explain the weather, however they cannot CONTROL the actual weather itself. -Therefore, CERTAIN sciences DO NOT follow the same process of the 'traditional' sciences. -SAYER (1992) argues that social sciences are not that different from some of these 'natural sciences' such as METEROLOGY. -Realists argue that sociologists study open systems where the processes are too complex to make exact predictions. BUT this is just like other types of natural sciences, and therefore it can be considered a science!

Answer 43

-Argue that science does not just study observable phenomena but underlying unobservable structured.

Answer 44

Argue that unobservable phenomena can be studied so meanings can be studied scientifically, through studying effects.

Answer 45

-Both aim to explain causes of events in terms of underlying structures & processes through observing effects. -ie. cannot directly see ‘social class’ but can observe its effects on people’s life chances.

Answer 46

-Sees underlying structures such as capitalism producing effects such as poverty. -Some theories can be tested. -Sociologists can also be scientific when they interpret behaviour in terms of actors’ internal meanings - even tho these are unobservable.

Answer 47

5. The social system - these sub-systems together make up the social system as a whole. 4. Sub-systems are groups of related Institutions. For example, shops, farms, factorles and banks form part of the economic sub-system. 3. Institutions are a groups of status roles e.g. the family Is an Institution made up of the related roles of mother, father, child... 2. Status roles are sets of norms that tell us how to act' e.b. teachers must not show favouritism 1. Norms- at the bottom of the system are specific norms or rules that control our behaviour. -Without norms, everyone would act how they wanted which is not functional since there’s no integration or consensus. -Norms help I still communal goals and values that help society to work alongside each other.

Answer 48

-Both have systems that work together i.e. organs vs. social institutions. -Both have **system needs** that need to be met in order to survive i.e. nutrients for organs vs. socialisation for social order in society (social institutions have needs that need to be me - **functional prerequisites**. -Both have functions i.e. body carries oxygen to organs vs. economy helps maintain the social system by meeting the needs of food and shelter. -Both maintain order: society = social order.

Answer 49

1. Socialisation through different institutions. 2. Social control - positive sanctions for conformity, negative ones to punish deviance. -Primary socialisation helps instil values & norms when young to help form our ideology. -Social control is useful to teach right from wrong to ensure order is maintained & people conform. -We need to meet the **instrumental** & **expressive** needs of society.

Answer 50

1. **Goal attainment** - society must set goals for people to strive for and also provide the necessary resources for them to achieve them. 2. **Adaptation** - Society must adapt to meet the needs of all the individuals within it. 3. **Integration** - Subsystems must integrate with each other to work towards the shared goals of society. 4. **Latency** - Processes must exist that allow society to continue to function; ensuring that its culture is transmitted to the next generation and people are de-stressed. GAIL achieves **social order!**

Answer 51

1. Goal attainment - the father takes on the instrumental role as the breadwinner, he desires to provide financially for his family. 2. Adaptation - during industrialisation, the nuclear family had to become geographically mobile in order for the father to fulfil his instrumental role. 3. Integration - the family and education system work together to socialise the young to have the correct norms and values. 4. Latency - the expressive role of the wife benefits the economy as men are de-stressed in the home and are able to go back to work the next day (warm bath theory). This ensures society is stable!

Answer 52

-Change is a gradual evolutionary process of increasing complexity & structures differentiation (institutions take over the specific functions). -Parsons identified 2 types of societies norms - traditional & modern.

Answer 53

-Status ascribed at birth -Diffuse relationships - usually with kin to satisfy a large range of general needs. -Particularism - people may receive special treatment because they’re a member of a specific group. -Affectivity - people aim to satisfy their needs immediately. -Collective orientation - people put needs of group first.

Answer 54

-Specific contractual reationthias with individual to meet a specific need (ie. employer and employee). -Universality - everybody treated in same way & equal before the law. -Affective neutrality - people defer or postpone their need for gratification. -Status earned through hard work. -Self-orientation - people selfishly put their own needs before the group to which they belong.

Answer 55

-Organisms have evolved from simple structures where a single cell performs all essential functions to complex organisms like humans with many different organs, each performing a specialised functions. -Similarly, societies move from simple to complex structures i.e. in traditional society, the family performed many functions: > Served their own political leadership i.e. the father. (goal attainment) > Family produced their own food (adaption) > Performed religious function (integration) > Looked after the families emotional needs(latency) - However, as societies develop, the family loses its functions to factories, political parties, schools, churches etc. Parsons calls this **structural differentiation** - a gradual process in which separate, functionally specialised institutions develop, each meeting a different need. -He also believes that change occurs through a **moving equilibrium** - a change in one part of the system creates changes in other parts i.e. the rise of industry created a change in the family from extended to nuclear.

Answer 56

-Parsons’ view: Every institution in society is essential and irreplaceable in its current form. -Merton’s critique: This is an untested assumption – functional alternatives may exist. -Example: > Parsons says the nuclear family is necessary for primary socialisation. > Merton points out that single-parent families or extended families can perform this function too. Not all institutions are indispensable – others can perform similar roles just as effectively.

Answer 57

-Parsons’ view: All parts of society are closely interconnected – change in one leads to change in others. -Merton’s critique: Not all parts are necessarily tightly linked – some may be relatively independent. -New Right critique: > The New Right would oppose Merton’s view, arguing that the nuclear family is essential. > They believe that breakdown of the nuclear family leads to social problems like crime or educational failure. Merton sees society as more flexible, while the New Right supports Parsons' idea of interdependence (especially regarding family).

Answer 58

-Parsons’ view: All institutions and structures perform positive functions for society as a whole. -Merton’s critique: Some aspects can be dysfunctional for certain groups. -Examples of dysfunction: > Capitalist economy: benefits the elite but exploits the working class (Marxist view). > Education system: may reinforce class inequality and cultural bias (Conflict view). > Media: can perpetuate stereotypes and misinformation. Merton acknowledges negative consequences and that what's functional for some can be harmful to others.

Answer 59

-Manifest function refers to the intended function. -Latent function is an unintended function (positive or negative).

Answer 60

1. Criminal Justice System -Manifest function (intended/obvious): Protect society from harmful individuals. -Latent function (unintended/hidden): Provides employment and career opportunities (e.g. police, lawyers, judges). 2. Family -Manifest function: Socialises children into norms and values of society. -Latent function: Can lead to conflict, tension, or emotional issues (e.g. domestic disputes). 3. Education System -Manifest function: Helps students gain qualifications and academic knowledge. -Latent function: Models behaviour and reinforces social norms (e.g. punctuality, obedience to authority).

Answer 61

-Overly Positive View: Functionalism emphasises harmony and consensus, overlooking societal inequalities. -Conservative Bias: By focusing on stability, it tends to justify existing social arrangements, potentially ignoring systemic issues. -Maintains Status Quo: Institutions are seen as serving societal needs, which can legitimise and perpetuate existing power structures. -Neglects Power and Inequality: Fails to address how institutions may benefit dominant groups while disadvantaging others.

Answer 62

-Deterministic Perspective: Functionalism portrays individuals as passive, molded by societal structures without agency. -Ignores Individual Meanings: Overlooks how personal interactions and interpretations shape social reality. -Neglects Micro-Level Analysis: Focuses on large-scale social structures, missing the nuances of everyday social interactions.

Answer 63

-Outdated Framework: Functionalism's grand narratives are seen as ill-suited for the fragmented, diverse nature of contemporary society. -Ignores Diversity and Fluidity: Assumes uniformity in societal functions, failing to account for varied experiences and identities. -Overlooks Rapid Social Change: Struggles to explain the dynamic and constantly evolving aspects of modern life.

Answer 64

1. **Alienation:** -Bourgeoisie gain: Profit from products they don't make. -Proletariat lose: No control or pride in their work — feel like machines. 2. **Concentration of Means of Production:** -Bourgeoisie gain: Own all production tools and stay in power. -Proletariat lose: Must work for those in power — no chance to rise up. 3. **Low Wages, High Surplus Value:** -Bourgeoisie gain: Keep profits from underpaying workers. -Proletariat lose: Work hard but stay poor — creates inequality.

Answer 65

• Structural theory - the structure of society shapes an individuals actions. • Both use scientific methods • Both modernist theories which share the view of enlightenment. Differ: Marxism - conflict theory - social change is not slow and gradual we need a revolution! Functionalism - consensus theory.

Answer 66

-Abolish capitalism – seen as an unjust system that exploits the working class (proletariat). -End class inequality – remove the divide between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers). -**Establish communism** – a system where: > The means of production are owned collectively (by the people). > No private ownership of businesses or profit. > Everyone works according to their ability and receives according to their needs. -Create a fairer society – no exploitation, alienation, or class conflict.

Answer 67

-Historical materialism = changes in society have occurred due to changes in the economy and labour force. -Marx argued he came up with a NEW methodology to study society: the way to study history is to study the economic base (means and relations of production) - a new methodological way to research history. -The mode of production (the economic base) Influences the superstructure of our society!

Answer 68

Base: -Relations of production - bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat. -Means of production - all the things you need to produce: machines, factories (all owned by bourgeoisie). (shapes the superstructure) Superstructure: -Education -Family -Religion -Mass media -Politics (this maintains & legitimises the base)

Answer 69

-In particular, a division of labour develops and this gives rise to the division between two classes: > DA class that owns the means of production - bourgeoisie > A class of labourers - proletariat -From then on production is directed by the class of owners to meet their own needs. EXPLOITATION OCCURS!

Answer 70

-Surplus product: The "surplus" product is whatever is produced in excess of necessity. -Surplus value: profit! The money left over once staff have been paid, products have been deducted etc.

Answer 71

• Ancient mode of production- based on the exploitation of slaves • Feudal mode of production - based on the exploitation of serfs • Capitalist mode of production - based on the exploitation of workers. -During primitive communism (tribal society) exploitation did not exist, however, since then, the mode of production has always been based on exploitation!! In order to change this we need a communist mode of production.

Answer 72

1. Primitive communism 2. Slavery 3. Feudalism 4. Capitalism 5. Socialism 6. Communism

Answer 73

-Definition: Alienation describes the estrangement workers feel from their labour, the products they create, and their own human potential. -Cause: In capitalism, workers have no control over the production process or the products, leading to a sense of powerlessness and disconnection.

Answer 74

-Meaning: This refers to the perception of social relationships involved in production not as relationships among people, but as economic relationships among the money and commodities exchanged in market trade. -Implication: It obscures the exploitation inherent in labour by attributing value to commodities themselves, rather than the labour that produced them.

Answer 75

-Process: When the proletariat becomes aware of their exploitation and shared interests, they develop class consciousness. -Outcome: This awareness can lead to collective action to overthrow the capitalist system and establish a classless society

Answer 76

• Recognises the importance of the economy and how it can impact social institutions. • Provides an explanation for the extreme inequalities we have in society. • Still remains a highly influential theory which has inspired much sociological work - influenced Weber, Marxist Feminists and Neo-Marxists.

Answer 77

-Economic determinism - the view that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society, including social change is extremely limited and deterministic. See's people as passive puppets controlled by the economic base. -Marx's economic base and superstructure model completely neglects the role of ideas - i.e. Weber argues it was people's ideas which brought modern capitalism into being - Marx is forgetting that humans have the capacity to think and social institutions actively shape behaviour and also the economic base! -Ignores other areas of inequality.

Answer 78

-Modern societies are more complex than Marx’s 2 class model suggests. -Instead of a simply divide, there’s multiple class layers, such as the MC, working poor & upper MC. -Marx theory cannot account for these variations in status, income & power.

Answer 79

-Argue that a single overarching explanation oversimplifies the diversity & fragmentation of contemporary society. -Modern life is now varied & chaotic & with varied values & identities which Marxism fails to capture.

Answer 80

Neo-Marxism is a development of Marxism which tries to compensate for the criticisms of traditional Marxism - specifically economic determinism of the base-superstructure model. **Humanistic Marxism** - has similarities with action theories and interpretive sociology. **Structural Marxism** - has similarities with positivist sociology.

Answer 81

• Gramsci coined hegemony (dominant ideas) to explain how the ruling class maintains its position. • The proletariat must develop their own 'counter-hegemony' to win the leadership of society from the bourgeoisie. -He rejects Marx's economic determinism as an explanation for change: the transition from capitalism to communism will never come about simply as a result of economic forces. -Human ideas will play a central role in determining whether or not change will occur.

Answer 82

1. Coercion - the army, police, and courts to force other classes to accept its rule. 2. Consent (hegemony) - they use ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that their rule is legitimate. • However, hegemony of the ruling class can be threatened because: 1. The ruling class are a minority -they have to make alliances with other groups such as the middle classes to create a power bloc and make ideological compromises to keep them onside. 2. The proletariat have a dual consciousness - their ideas are influenced not only by the bourgeoisie ideology BUT ALSO their material conditions of life i.e. poverty.

Answer 83

-If proletariat are able to create a **counter-hegemonic bloc**. -More likely to occur during an economic crisis as poverty will cause proletariat to question status quo. -The proletariat need to have 'organic intellectuals' - a group of class conscious workers who are organised in a revolutionary political party that will win leadership - socialist rather than capitalist values.

Answer 84

:) Influenced a lot of Marxist work: Neo-Marxist Willis stressed importance of ideas & consciousness for WC lads in resisting their school’s ideology.s :( Overemphasises role of ideas & underplays role of both state coercion & economic factors: People may tolerate capitalism because they fear the repercussions of state coercion (ie. prison). :) Structuralist Marxists believe that our sense of free will, choice and creativity is an illusion: Craib (1992) argues that we are merely puppets! Althusser argues that our idea of free will is simply false consciousness.

Answer 85

• Unlike humanistic Marxists who believe humans are creative and able to make changes through their conscious actions, Structuralist Marxists believe it is not people's actions but social structures that create change. • We need to study society scientifically!

Answer 86

• In Marx's base-superstructure model, there is a one-way causality: the economic level determines everything! • In Althusser's model, the political and ideological levels have some independence (relative autonomy) from the economic level AND can influence it (two-way causality) . • Simply put - The economy does not determine everything, it is influenced by the political level and ideological level.

Answer 87

The economy does not determine everything - it is influenced by the political level (social control agencies), and ideological level (socialisation). Stare performs ideological functions that ensure reproduction of capitalism. Political level - Repressive state apparatus: - physical coercion i.e. army, police, prisons etc. that force the working class to obey (this is how Marxists traditionally see the state). Ideological level - Ideological state apparatus: - ideologically manipulate the working class into accepting the legitimacy of capitalism - based on the socialisation of ideas and values in social institutions such as the family, education & the media. -Believes humans are puppets of capitalist system & only a crisis in capitalism = socialism.

Answer 88

:( Humanistic Marxists like Gouldner argues that this 'scientific' approach discourages political activism because it over emphasises the role of structures and undermines the role of individual action. :( Thompson accuses Althusser of elitism - Althusser believed that the communist party knew what was best for the worker who should therefore blindly follow their lead. :( Ironically, Althusser believed he was developing a scientific analysis of society to bring about progression, however his theory has influenced postmodernists who reject the very idea that scientific knowledge can improve society. :( Believes humans are puppets and choices are pre-determined by levels, whereas humanistic believes humans make conscious changes through free will.

Answer 89

• Liberalism is the idea that all humans should have equality, rights and freedom. • Liberal feminists believe that, as humans, women should have the same rights and freedoms as men. • They believe in reformism, that equality can be achieved by gradual reforms and changes to laws and policies.

Answer 90

-Family: more women pursuing careers & a more equal split of house work & childcare. -Education: expectations changed but more work to be done (WISE/GIST). -Work: challenge institutional sexism & glass ceiling. -Law: Equal pay act, anti-discrimination laws & better care for sex crime victims. -Social policy: more work to be done on maternity/paternity leave & nursery vouchers.

Answer 91

-Oakley (The sociology of housework) 1974 -Sharpe (How girls learn to be women) 1994 Liberal feminists believe that there need to be changes in the certain areas in order the aid the path to equality and these changes should be achieved through reform and education. Sex is biological but gender is socially constructed.

Answer 92

-Shows gender inequality & discrimination can be overcome without violence. -Shows gender differences are socially constructed. -Has had important influences on social policy.

Answer 93

-Ignores the need for revolutionary action. -Deals with the symptoms of oppression not the causes Walby argue they offer no explanation for the overall structure of gender inequality. -Overly optimistic.

Answer 94

• Patriarchy is universal, derived from women's ability to bear children - Firestone. • Women's main enemy are men. All men benefit from patriarchy. • The personal is political - all personal experiences of women are rooted in their political situation and gender inequality i.e. Brownmiller argues that women do not walk alone at night dye to fear of rape. • Lobbying for legal change is unlikely to bring about equality.

Answer 95

New focus on sexuality: • Some radical feminists advocate Separationism, collective action and political lesbianism, as the only way to achieve equality. • This is to create a new culture of female independence, free from patriarchy. • Greer argues for the creation of 'matrilocal - Gobiansm households, as an alternative to the heterosexual family. • Feminist Rich, - men force women into unsatisfying compulsory heterosexuality. • Women portrayed as submissive sex objects - especially in pornography.

Answer 96

Conscious raising - women need to share their experiences in women only groups - this will enable women to see they are not alone and will create collective action i.e. slutwalk.

Answer 97

-Raises the profile of what has previously been considered private issues. -Exposes the social construction of gender and gender roles.

Answer 98

-Uses violence to achieve its aims. Makes wider feminism seem silly and men hating. -And ignores the element of choice within a relationship. -Jenny Sommerville: Ignores the progress that has been made. -Pollert - patriarchy is a circular argument i.e male violence is an example of patriarchy.

Answer 99

1. Women are a source of cheap, disposable labour. 2. Women create & socialise the next generation of workers. 3. Women act as a reserve labour force. 3. Women absorb men’s frustrations as their own (pressure valve).

Answer 100

Combines Marxist & Radical feminism. Sees 2 systems of oppression: - The economy: capitalism - The sex gender system: patriarchy

Answer 101

• Patriarchy is universal but takes a specific form in capitalist society, • Focuses on the relationship between women's position in the domestic division of labour and paid work

Answer 102

-Capitalism wants low paid workers & patriarchy wants women to be beneath men & capitalism needs more workers & patriarchy says women have a reproductive role. -ie. Women used as underpaid staff to align with capitalist need of underpaid work.

Answer 103

• Patriarchy and Capitalism are inter-related but have a conflict of interes • Capitalism = wants cheap female labour • Patriarchy - wants to dominate women in the private sphere (home). • She argues that capitalism is more powertul, so patriarchy ends up adapting by keeping women in low status jobs.

Answer 104

• Patriarchy is not a system in the same way as capitalism instead it is a descriptive term for practices such as male violence and control of women's labour.

Answer 105

-Difference (intersectional) Feminism Do not see women as a single homogenous group who all share the same issues and problems. -Other feminisms are **essentialist** and have created a **false universality** based around white western middle class women. -For example, some difference feminists argue the preoccupation of Western feminism with sexuality is irrelevant to women in poorer countries, where access to healthcare and clean water are far more pressing problems. -Essentialism = the idea that all women are the same and share the same experiences.

Answer 106

-White middle class women dominate the feminist movement and falsely claim a universality of women's experience. -Discourses: A way of seeing, thinking, or speaking about something. -Our identities are constituted through many different discourses. -Allows discussion and analysis of different forms of oppression.

Answer 107

-Allows for analysis of different forms of oppression. -Allows for diff forms of resistance & struggles to achieve equality.

Answer 108

-Having so many sub groups weakens the feminist movement. -Segal: abandons any notion of objective social structures. -Walby: there are important similarities amongst women i.e. low pay, domestic violence etc.

Answer 109

-**Gender inequality still exists** > Gender pay gap remains (e.g. 7.7% in 2023 – ONS). > Women underrepresented in leadership roles. **Violence against women continues** > Cases like Sarah Everard show safety concerns are ongoing. > Feminists highlight institutional sexism in police and justice systems. -**Media still sexualises and stereotypes women** > #MeToo revealed widespread harassment. > Women often objectified in films, ads, and music. -**Intersectional feminism** > Focus on race, class, and sexuality. > Supports marginalised groups often left out of early feminist movements.

Answer 110

**Legal equality largely achieved** > Equal rights laws are in place; some say feminism’s goals are met. > Women have more freedom and opportunities than before. **Ignores men’s issues** > Some argue it overlooks male mental health, custody, and suicide rates. -**Feminism has evolved** > Fourth-wave feminism tackles modern issues online and offline. > Movements like #TimesUp and body positivity keep it relevant.

Answer 111

-Social action theories take the BOTTOM-UP approach to analysing society. -Micro-theories. -Unlike Functionalists & Marxists who both take the TOP-DOWN approach, Social action theories start by looking at how individuals interact with each other. -Say people have agency and society is a product of small scale interactions. -Want to understand & interpret peoples meanings & motives regarding their behaviour. -2 strands; symbolic interactionism & ethnomethodology.

Answer 112

Social action theories: 1. Weber - founder of 'social action' 2. Symbolic interactionism 3. Phenomenology (quite philosophical). 4. Ethnomethodology Integrated theories (mix of both structure and social action): 1. Weber 2. Giddens' structuration

Answer 113

-People hold meanings & ideas about the world which influences their actions. -Weber thought structural & action approaches are both necessary. -He argues that an adequate explanation involves two levels: 1. The level of cause - explaining objective structural factors that shape people’s actions. 2. The level of meaning - understanding the subjective meanings individuals attach to their actions.

Answer 114

-Capitalism emerged partly due to religious ideas, not just economic forces. -Specifically, the values of Protestantism (especially Calvinism) encouraged disciplined, rational work — helping capitalism grow.

Answer 115

-A belief (especially in Calvinism) that hard work, discipline, and frugality are signs of being chosen by God. -People worked hard and reinvested earnings rather than spending — this behaviour supported capitalist growth.

Answer 116

-Marx saw economic forces (like class conflict) as the main driver of change. -Weber believed ideas, values, and beliefs (like religion) can also shape society and the economy. -He saw society as more complex than just class struggle.

Answer 117

-Rational capitalism requires certain cultural and religious values (like those in Protestantism). -Without these, capitalism may not develop or thrive — belief systems matter, not just money.

Answer 118

-It relies on rules, procedures, and hierarchy — authority comes from positions, not personalities. -This is called legal-rational authority. How can we change it? -Bureaucracies can become too rigid and cause alienation. -Change can happen through charismatic leaders, democratic reforms, or challenging the rules that uphold the system.

Answer 119

-He believed in political pluralism where people actively engage in diff views & ideas of the world. -Society is outcome of struggles for power on the basis of ideas. -Weber was a reformer of capitalism whereas Marxists were revolutionary!

Answer 120

-Calvinism: A 16th-century Protestant movement influential in developing capitalism. -Two key beliefs: > Asceticism Belief in self-denial and avoiding luxury. > Calvinists didn’t spend money on themselves — they reinvested into their work/business. -Predestination > Belief that God has already decided who goes to heaven or hell. > Created salvation panic – anxiety over not knowing their fate. -Financial success = sign of being ‘elect’ > Calvinists saw wealth and hard work as signs of God’s favour. > Motivated them to work harder and live simply. -Led to capitalist behaviour: > Rational, disciplined work ethic. > Reinvested profits instead of spending — helped capitalism grow.

Answer 121

1. **Instrumentally rational action** - the actor calculates the most efficient way of achieving a given goal (whether or not the actor sees the goal or action as good or not). 2. **Value-rational action** - action towards a goal that the actor views as desirable. 3. **Traditional action** - routine or habitual action i.e. doing something for traditional reasons. 4. **Affectual action** - action that expresses emotion

Answer 122

:) Weber's ideas are a valuable corrective to the overemphasis on structural factors by other theories. :( Schutz - Weber's view of action is too individualistic doesn't allow shared meanings. :( Four types of action are difficult to apply i.e. giving gifts at Christmas. :( Weber says we have to put ourselves in someone else's shoes to really understand them but can we really do this? (Verstehen)

Answer 123

-Small scale interactions. -Symbolic interactionists study meaning and communication; they use qualitative method. -Our actions are based on the meanings we give to situations and others, conveyed through symbols. -A social structure is a social construction and a product of our minds it does not exist externally to us. -Theory has key principles; the symbol, the self, the interaction.

Answer 124

-We respond to the world by giving it meaning. Mead argued that humans interact through the use of symbols. • Visual signs (red traffic light = stop) • Visual gestures (waving = hello) • Expressions (frown = angry) • Verbal (scream = fear & of course language) • Sounds (siren = emergency) -Although these symbols often have a shared meaning they can be interpreted differently - meanings of symbols can be unclear so we have to interpret them.

Answer 125

-We develop this notion of 'SELF' as a child i.e. who we are. We start to reflect on our 'self' through the eyes of our parents. This allows us to see ourselves through the eyes of others i.e. to put ourselves in somebody else's shoes. -This is important in order to interpret meaning from symbols!

Answer 126

-Meanings are constructed through social interaction. -People try to interpret meanings and others give to their actions by imagining them in their position & taking on their role. -A successful interaction involves correctly interpreting the other’s meanings.

Answer 127

-Unlike animals, humans don’t act purely on instinct - we interpret meanings first. -Humans use symbols (especially language) to give meaning to the world around them. -We develop a sense of self by taking the role of the other (seeing ourselves from others’ perspectives). Example: -If a dog is threatened, it reacts instinctively (e.g. barking or running). -A human, when insulted, thinks first: “Did they mean it?” “How should I respond?” -We interpret the situation before acting - this symbolic thinking is unique to humans.

Answer 128

-People define/interpret the world through the meanings they attach to it. Reality is therefore a subjective. -The meanings people hold are constructed from and communicated in the form of symbols. - People understand meanings from symbols by taking the role of the other le, seeing ourselves as others see us.

Answer 129

1. Our actions are not automatic responses to stimuli; they’re based on the meanings we give to situations/people. 2. These meanings arise from interactions and are negotiable and changeable. 3. The meanings we give to situations are mainly the result of taking the role of the other.

Answer 130

Blumer developed Mead's concepts of the self into 2 parts: > **The "I”** aspect which largely consists of spontaneous actions. > **The "Me"** aspect which consists of an awareness of how other people expect us to behave at any given moment. -Animals - the "I" is dominant. -Humans - the "Me" is dominant. -Take hunger for example - the I would want to eat straight away, however the Me will be aware what it will look to others if I started scoffing a burger in the office, this will result in a construction of the self's behaviour i.e. to eat politely.

Answer 131

-If we believe something is true, we act as if it is — this shapes outcomes. -Labelling affects behaviour. -Example: A student labelled “naughty” is treated differently by the teacher, which can affect their performance or behaviour.

Answer 132

-We develop our self-concept by seeing ourselves through others’ reactions. -Others act as a mirror — we become how they see us. -Leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy: if others treat someone as clever/stupid, they may become that. (Cooley)

Answer 133

-A career = progression through different stages and labels. -Used to explain experiences of stigmatised groups (e.g. drug users, mentally ill). -Example: A mental health “career” might go from “pre-patient” to “labelled patient” to “discharged,” with each stage shaping identity and social status. -Labels can become a master status (dominant identity in others’ eyes). (Becker & Lemert)

Answer 134

Deterministic - seeing our actions and identities as shaped by the way others label them

Answer 135

:( Labelling theory sees the individual as the passive victim of other people’s labels. -Goffman disagrees & argues we construct our ‘self’ based on our audience. -Goffman’s approach is a ‘dramatical analogy’, it uses analogies with drama (ie. actors/scripts). -Our behaviour isn’t fixed & we change it based on our audience. -We constantly study our audience to see how they respond, and adjust our performance to present a convincing image. We seek to present a particular image of ourselves to our audiences to do so we must control the impression our audience gives. Our aim is to present convincing performances. • Front stage - where we give our performance • Back stage - where we are our 'true' selves. -Techniques for impression management: Language, tone of voice, gestures, facial expressions, props, dress, make up, furniture etc. -No true self.

Answer 136

:) Largely avoids the determinism of structural theories such as functionalism. :) It recognises that people create society through their choices and meanings.

Answer 137

:( Over-emphasises the significance of the individual. There tends to be little conception of social structures. :( It cannot explain power relationships in society in the way that Marxists or feminists have. It does not explain why some individuals / social groups are more powerful than others. :( It concentrates too much on small-scale, trivial aspects of social life, therefore ignoring the much bigger picture of life at a society-wide level of analysis. :( It believes that nearly everything is socially constructed - so logically one could argue that sociology is itself a social construct, and therefore useless? :( It fails to explain social order and social change. :( The dramaturgical analogy is weak because at times we are actors and audience members. :( Ethnomethodologists believe it fails to explain how actors create meanings.

Answer 138

STRUCTURE-Macro approach, top down -Such as functionalism and Marxism -Deterministic- behaviour determined by the wider structures of society. -Structures are external and exist outside of individuals- thus they can be objectively studied. ACTION- Micro approach, bottom up. -Such as symbolic interactionism, labelling theory, phenomenology and ethnomethodology. -Behaviour determined by meanings that people ascribe to behaviour. -Structures are socially constructed by human interaction Some sociologists see that both structure & action are important so they combine them in a single unified theory.

Answer 139

-Structure and action (which he calls agency) are two sides of the same coin- neither can exist without the other. -Our actions produce and reproduce the structures over time and space, whilst these structures make our actions possible in the first place. -Giddens calls this **relationship structuration**. E.g. Our use of language - there is an external structure to language i.e. grammar, yet it is dependent on action (people using it). Language structure can also change over time due to our actions i.e. chillax was added to the dictionary in 2020.

Answer 140

1. Rules - norms, customs & laws that govern actions AND 2. Resources - economic resources and power over others. -Importantly, rules and resources (structure) can be either be reproduced OR changed through human action. -However, Giddens argues that although our actions can change structure, actions generally tend to reproduce them. This is because: 1. Rules contain huge amounts of knowledge of how we 'should' live our lives and relies on us using resources i.e. money to go shopping. 2. We have a deep-seated need for ontological security (a need to feel that the world is secure, stable, and predictable). This tends to discourage action to change the structure.

Answer 141

-We need to reflexively monitor our own action. Giddens being a late modernist argues tradition no longer controls behaviour so we can constantly reflect on our actions and change them more easily. -He also notes that our actions may change the world without us evening knowing. -ie. Boycotting

Answer 142

:) Attempts to overcome the distinction between structure and action. :( Structural theorists - he underestimates the capacity of structures to resist change. :( Craib - structuration doesn't explain society it just describes it. Giddens fails to untie structure and action and simplifies the structure of society too much i.e. reducing it down to simply rules and resources.

Answer 143

-Modernity emerged in Western Europe in the late 18th century. Key features of a modern society: > The nation state - focal point of modern society. Serves as an important source of identity i.e. Britain and the union jack. > Capitalism - mass standardised production also known as 'Fordism' like the car! > Rationality, science technology - the drive for enlightenment. > Individualism - to an extent, we are no longer bound by tradition.

Answer 144

-Until recently, the nation-state provided the basic framework for most people's lives i.e. you lived by your country's norms and values. -However, due to globalisation we now live in a global village. Globalisation CAUSED postmodernity! -Globalisation has resulted in 4 changes: 1. Technological changes 2. Economic changes 3. Political changes 4. Culture & identity changes

Answer 145

1. **Cultural & identity changes:** -Cultural products and brands (e.g. Nike) are found worldwide. -Leads to 'Nike identities' (Archer): people express themselves through global brands. -Working-class identities are destabilised — jobs outsourced abroad, leading to insecurity. 2. **Technological** - time space compression: -The world feels smaller due to instant communication (e.g. internet, social media). -Global interactions happen in real time - impacts how we see ourselves and others. -3. **Economic changes** - global economy: -Online banking and 24/7 transactions enable constant global business. -Strengthens capitalism and concentrates power in multinational corporations. 4. **Political** - Disorganised capitalism (Lash and Urry): -Nation-states have less control over their economies and politics. -Harder to regulate big businesses. -Example: Starbucks’ tax evasion shows how companies avoid national laws.

Answer 146

• The nation state and its social institutions are breaking down and losing power - Bauman calls this 'liquid modernity'. • No such thing as 'normal' or 'typical' i.e. the family no longer refers to the nuclear family as this social institution has broke down - families are SO diverse now. • Society is unstable, fragmented and media saturated. • Identity is based on consumption and not our production.

Answer 147

**Yes (modernist view):** -Society is still shaped by rationality, science, capitalism, bureaucracy (e.g. Weber, Marx, Functionalism). -Institutions like the state, education, and the economy still organise society. **No (postmodernist view):** -We’ve entered a postmodern era: unstable, fragmented, driven by consumerism, media, globalisation. -Identities are no longer fixed — we pick and mix. **Hybrid view:** -Late modernists (e.g. Giddens, Beck): we are in a reflexive, risk-filled phase of modernity, not fully postmodern.

Answer 148

**Yes – postmodernist argument:** -Traditional theories (Marxism, Functionalism) are meta-narratives – overly general and outdated. -Need to understand fluid identities, media saturation, and global culture. **No – traditional theory still useful:** -Marxists and Feminists argue structural inequalities still exist and need to be explained. -Modernist theories still explain class, power, gender, and institutions. **Middle ground:** -Giddens (late modernism) – build on old theories but adapt them to modern risks (e.g. climate crisis, surveillance).

Answer 149

**Yes (modernists):** -Science, reason, and progress can still improve society. -Institutions like the UN, NHS, and education systems aim to solve social problems. **No (postmodernists):** -Enlightenment ideals are naïve – society is too complex, unpredictable, and diverse. -Science and reason have sometimes caused harm (e.g. nuclear weapons, surveillance). **Critical perspective:** -Marxists argue the Enlightenment project was co-opted by capitalism – progress benefits the powerful. -Feminists argue Enlightenment values were male-dominated.

Answer 150

> There is no objective criteria to say whether a theory is true or false. This is known as anti-foundationalism. > All views are true to those that hold them - no one has special access to the 'truth'. > All accounts of the world are equally valid.

Answer 151

> As we cannot guarantee knowledge is correct we can never achieve the enlightenment project.. > Theories that claim to have the truth about how to create a better society i.e. Marxism, are simply just a metanarrative (big story). This is just a Marxist version of reality and NOT the truth.

Answer 152

1. Foucault - control 2. Lyotard - understanding 3. Baudrillard - control

Answer 153

-Discourses = how we think about certain things/people/groups. These are shaped by power relations in social institutions. -As such, discourse, power, and knowledge are intimately connected, and work together to create hierarchies. -Some discourses are dominant and are considered truthful, normal, and right, while others are marginalised and stigmatised, and considered wrong. extreme, and even dangerous. -The power of discourses lie in their ability to provide legitimacy and 'truth' for certain kinds of knowledge while undermining others; this can turn people into objects that an that can be controlled.

Answer 154

-They exclude alternative views (e.g. spiritual or holistic understandings of illness). -They label and control individuals (e.g. surveillance of ‘deviant’ behaviour). -They create ‘normal’ vs. ‘abnormal’ – leading to marginalisation and stigma. -Creates a social hierarchy between equal people.

Answer 155

-Postmodernists argue we should celebrate the diversity of views rather than seek to impose one version of the truth on everyone like metanarratives try to do. -Knowledge is just a series of different ways of seeing the world. -This is preferable for postmodern societies as it allows groups who have previously been marginalised by modern society to be heard i.e. women and ethnic minority groups. -Society is no longer based on the production of material goods, but rather on buying and selling meaningless knowledge in the forms of images and signs, which bare no relation to physical reality.

Answer 156

-Media and consumer culture blur the line between reality and illusion (e.g. influencers, reality TV). -This makes rational, evidence-based decision-making almost impossible. -People are sceptical of experts — “truth” is now seen as relative. -Competing narratives (e.g. fake news vs. real news) challenge Enlightenment ideas of objective truth. -Baudrillard argues that apparent “progress” (e.g. technology, media) actually disconnects us from reality, identity, and meaning. -People are more focused on image and consumption than reason and social improvement.

Answer 157

• Culture and identity differs greatly from modern society, due to hyperreality. 1. The media produce an endless stream of ever changing images, values and versions of the truth. This results in culture becoming fragmented and unstable. 2. Identity also becomes destabilised and is no longer bound by societal structures such as class, gender, or culture. 3. People lose faith in the possibility of rational progress as there are too many 'monopolies of truth' suggested by metanarratives.

Answer 158

Social structures are fragmenting, weakening or ceasing to exists and people are now characterised by growing individualism & forming identities though individual choices where they can ‘pick and mix’ choices in education, health, personal relationships etc.

Answer 159

-Highlights how identity is no longer determined - places great emphasis on agency. -Focusses in important contemporary changes in society - especially in relation to the media. -Challenges meta narratives which are seen to be deterministic.

Answer 160

-If no one's truth is factual then why should we even pay attention to this theory? -Ignores power and inequality which are embedded into the structure of society. -Not everyone has access to construct their identities through consumption. -People can distinguish between TV & real life. -People do believe in rational progress & this is evidenced by activist protests. -By assuming that all views are equally true it becomes just as valid to deny human right atrocities that have occurred i.e. holocaust deniers - this is a morally indefensible position!

Answer 161

• Some Marxists see postmodern society as the product of the most recent stage of capitalism. Every other Marxist believes society is modern not postmodern! • To understand postmodernity you have to examine its relationship with capitalism. • Harvey - capitalism went through an economic crisis and postmodernity arose out of the crisis in the 1970s. The crisis meant that a new way of ACCUMALATING profits had to be created. Harvey calls this flexible accumulation or post-Fordism.

Answer 162

-ICT and technology improved communication for global firms. -Led to flexible workforce – workers had to adapt to changing roles, hours, and demands. -Production shifted to niche markets and products – allowed constant switching to meet consumer tastes. -Work became unstable and insecure (precarious employment).

Answer 163

-Niche markets encouraged cultural diversity (e.g. varied fashion, music, identities). -Flexible employment created social and identity instability.

Answer 164

-Leisure, culture, and identity have become commodities (things to be bought/sold). -Example: Beauty industry = $625 billion — shows how identity is shaped by consumerism. -Jameson: Postmodern capitalism commodifies all aspects of life, including self-expression.

Answer 165

-Space has been compressed - travel globally. -Time has been compressed - takes you less time to travel or do things. Harvey argues capitalism shrinks the globe.

Answer 166

• The changes brought about by flexible accumulation have weakened the working-class and socialist movements as groups are too fragmented. i.e. women's liberation, anti-racism, environmentalism etc. • Postmodernist Marxists hope these oppositional movements can unite to form a 'rainbow alliance' that counters the capitalist system and creates social change.

Answer 167

:) Evidence: the economic crisis that ended in the 1970's led to a shift from manufacturing to information technology, which then caused a postmodern society to develop. :( Although they see social change as possible, they take a much more pessimistic view towards this than modernist Marxists.

Answer 168

• Rapid changes and individualisation in society are evidence of the features of modernity becoming intensified. • We are still in modernity but have entered its late phase. Therefore, modernist theories are still useful for understanding society. • Late Modernists also take the belief of the Enlightenment Project and argue objective knowledge can be discovered to improve society.

Answer 169

• Rapid change in late modern society is cased by disembedding and reflexivity. The combination of the two has contributed to globalisation. • Disembedding, we no longer need face to face contact in order to communicate with each other and so we are lifting out social relations from local contexts of interaction'. Disembedding breaks down geographical barriers in late modernity and interaction is impersonal. • Reflexivity; we are no longer as constrained by traditions and we are more individualistic, so we need to constantly monitor our behaviour. • Giddens sees Late Modernity as characterised by 'reflexivity'-knowledge we gain from society shapes how we act in it. In modern times social institutions are constantly changing and reflecting on what they do and how they do it - people are also having to reflect on the circumstances in which they live their lives which is leading to rapid change and instability.

Answer 170

-Modern society now faces “manufactured risks” – risks created by human activity (e.g. climate change, nuclear weapons, transnational crime). -In the past, risks were natural (e.g. drought, disease). -Globalisation increases global threats (e.g. terrorism, pandemics, cybercrime). -Transnational crime and nuclear risks are key examples of late modern dangers. **Reflexive Modernisation:** -We are more aware of risks and constantly evaluate consequences of our actions. -This creates risk consciousness – trying to minimise personal and societal risks. -Our understanding of risk is often shaped by the media, which can distort reality and exaggerate fears.

Answer 171

-We are not powerless – humans can use rational thinking and political action to improve society. -Example: Environmental movements challenging harmful industrial practices.

Answer 172

:) Offer an alternative to postmodernism - we can still improve society. :( Reflexivity suggests we can all re-shape our lives, but a poor person living in a heavily polluted area may not be able to afford to move elsewhere. :( Rustin critiques Beck and argues that capitalism with its love of profits is the greatest risk. :( Hirst argues political movements like environmentalism cannot bring about significant change as they are too fragmented to challenge capitalism.

Answer 173

> Social policy is generally thought of as the plans and actions of governments to tackle 'social problems'. > Social problems such as issues in education, welfare and health. Many sociologists are interested in solving social problems and much of their research produces policy proposals for government to act upon. > SOCIAL POLICY as a subject concerns itself with studying how governments respond to social problems in society. > Sociologists have differing views regarding social policy. Some FAVOUR social policy, whereas others are CRITICAL.

Answer 174

-Social problems are 'social behaviour that causes public friction' which require collective action to improve it'. E.g. poverty, educational underachievement etc. -Sociological problems are 'any pattern of relationships that calls for explanation' e.g. why some people are poor, or why people commit crime. -Many sociologists are interested in solving social problems through their research BUT others argue a sociologists role is to simply EXPLAIN things.

Answer 175

No guarantee sociologist’s research will be used to influence social policy, it depends on: -Electoral popularity- Research findings and recommendations might point to a policy that would be unpopular with voters. -Ideological and policy preferences of governments- If the researchers value stance or perspective is similar to the ideology of the govemment they may have more of a chance in influencing policies. -Interest groups- There are pressure groups that may influence goverment policies in their own interests e.g businesses keeping the minimum wage low. -Globalisation-social policy is not just influenced by the nation state- international organisations such as the EU (for now) may be more influential. -Critical sociology- Sociologists such as Marxists who are critical of the state and powerful groups may be regarded as too extreme- thus less likely to influence policy. -Cost- insufficient funds or other priorities for spending thus changes that sociologists recommend may not be implemented. -Funding sources-policy makers may recruit sociologists who share their view, thus research would then just support what the politician wants to do without research.

Answer 176

4 key practical benefits that can have on society and social policy: 1. To increase understanding of social issues 2. To increase awareness of cultural differences 3. To assess the effects of social policies 4. To increase self-awareness and understanding

Answer 177

-Rowntree studied poverty in early 20th-century Britain. -Found poverty was due to low wages, not laziness. -Policy impact: Helped justify the development of the welfare state (e.g. pensions, national insurance). -Minimum wage policy 1998.

Answer 178

-Highlighted systemic inequality. -Policy impact: Informed anti-discrimination laws like the Equality Act (2010), and inclusive education and employment practices. -Disabled people 7x likelier to be unemployed and 50% of families with a disabled male adult in poverty. -1995 Disability discrimination act.

Answer 179

-Sociologists can evaluate whether policies are effective or create unintended consequences. -Important to ensure public resources are used well and to avoid reinforcing inequalities. -Example: Studying whether education policies close or widen the attainment gap.

Answer 180

-Sociology helps individuals and society understand social structures, identities, and inequalities. -Example: Studying gender roles can help challenge sexism. -Helps promote tolerance, empathy, and critical thinking in a diverse society.

Answer 181

-Sociology has become too aligned with capitalism and the state. -It’s been “colonised” by the government, used to manage populations rather than liberate them. -Instead of challenging inequality, sociology may now reinforce oppression in more subtle, sophisticated ways. -Critical sociologists argue it should return to its radical roots — exposing power and promoting change.

Answer 182

-Postmodernists argue there is no single, objective reality sociology can study. -Society is fluid, fragmented, and constantly changing — can’t be captured by traditional sociological methods. -Therefore, sociology can’t help shape social policy or manage society. -Its only useful role is to help individuals reflect and understand themselves in a diverse, postmodern world.

Answer 183

**Political power matters:** -Governments listen to powerful or vote-worthy groups. -Marginalised groups often lack political influence, so their issues are ignored. **2. Financial limitations:** -Many sociological solutions require funding, which may not be economically or politically viable. -Governments often avoid costly changes. **3. Pressure from powerful interest groups:** -Policies may face opposition from industries like tobacco, oil, or road lobbies. -These groups protect their interests, even when harmful to society. **4. Fear of radical change:** -Governments prefer the status quo to avoid social upheaval or backlash. -This leads to cautious, short-term policymaking.

Answer 184

-Defined by Marshall as government actions that directly affect citizens' welfare or control. -Examples include education, health, housing, and income support.

Answer 185

-Durkheim & Comte: sociology = a science to diagnose and solve problems. -Support piecemeal social engineering: tackling one issue at a time (e.g. better education, reducing crime). -Believe the state works in society’s best interest. :( Criticised by Marxists for ignoring structural inequality.

Answer 186

-Society is patriarchal; the state reinforces women’s subordination. -Family policy reflects nuclear family stereotypes (e.g. women as caregivers). -Liberal feminists: support anti-discrimination reforms (e.g. promoting gender equality in schools). > Sociologists should influence social policy. -Radical feminists: believe policy changes reinforce patriarchy. > Favour separatism; sceptical of sociology’s ability to bring real change.

Answer 187

-Supports redistribution of wealth to tackle inequality. -Peter Townsend: studied poverty and proposed welfare reforms. :( Marxists: doesn't address root cause (capitalism). :( Postmodernists: reject idea of objective truth and fixed solutions.

Answer 188

-Minimal state intervention—oppose welfare (e.g. benefits, housing). -Welfare = dependency culture and undermines personal responsibility. -Prefer individual choice & responsibility. -Sociologists should propose alternative policies, not expand the nanny state. -Marsland: calls for “fully engaged” sociology to reshape policy.

Answer 189

-The state serves capitalist interests. -Policies like NHS maintain labour force for exploitation. -Welfare state = false legitimacy (makes capitalism seem caring). -Social policy prevents revolution by placating the working class. -Acknowledges some working-class benefits, but these are limited and under threat in crises. -Sociologist’s role = criticise, not assist, the capitalist system. :( Seen as unrealistic; ignores potential of reform.