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AQA A-level Sociology > Families & Households: Demography > Flashcards

Families & Households: Demography Flashcards

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1
Q

Demography meaning

A

The study of population & it’s changes.
Info from National census & stats.

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2
Q

Why do sociologists study it?

A

Govt need to have accurate information in current population trends and predict future ones to plan how many schools, hospitals, housing is required.
Need to estimate the amount of people necessary to run social institutions as well as estimating the welfare benefit bill.

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3
Q

Key demographic changes since 1901

A

1901:
-population: 31 million
-total fertility rate (TFR): 3.5
-birth rate: 29:1000pa
-death rate: 18:4:1000pa
-life expectancy: 50 for men & 57 for women

2021:
-population: 67 million
-total fertility rate (TFR): 1.56
-birth rate: 11:1000pa
-death rate: 10:1000pa
-life expectancy: 79 for men & 83 for women

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4
Q

Why have these changes occurred?

A

-increase in population could be due to migration.
-decrease in birth rate is due to women being more career focussed, development of contraception.
-decrease in death rate & increase in life expectancy is due to development in medical care, better access to free healthcare.

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5
Q

Birth rate

A

Number of live births per thousand of the population per year.

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6
Q

Births: 3 Baby booms

A

-after WW1 (1914-1918)
-after WW2 (1939-1945)
Because returning service men and partners started families they postponed.
-1960s which fell in 70s & rose again in 80s due to the sexual revolution (feminism).

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7
Q

Births: The TFR & Factors determining BR

A

-proportion of women of childbearing age (15-44).
-TFR (average no. of children women will have during their fertile years).
-the UK’s TFR has increased recently, but still a lot lower than in the past.

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8
Q

Births: Why has the BR & TFR decreased?

A

-women are postponing having children to 30 on average & older women are less fertile.
-women are choosing to remain childless.
-contraception.
-career focussed.
-people do not want kids, (1 in 5, 45 year old women are childless which is double the amount, 25 years ago).

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9
Q

Births: Reasons for the decline in BR

A
  1. Changes in women’s position
  2. Decline in infant mortality rate
  3. Children are now an economic liability
  4. Child centredness
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10
Q

Reasons for a decline in BR: Changes in women’s position

A

-legal equality with men.
-increased education opportunities.
-paid employment & laws outlawing equal pay & sex discrimination.
-changes in attitudes to family life & women’s role.
-easier access to divorce.
-access to abortion & reliable contraception.

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11
Q

Changes in women’s position: Harper (2012)

A

Says that education is the most important reason for change in rates.
-led to mindset change and women see other possibilities in life apart from traditional roles.
-many delay childbearing or don’t have children to have careers.
-Noted that once a pattern of low fertility lasts for more than in gen, cultural norms about family size change.
-smaller families become the norm.

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12
Q

Reasons for a decline in BR: Decline in the infant mortality rate

A

IMR: no. of infants who die before their first birthday per thousand babies born alive annually.
-Harper argues that a call in INR leads to a fall in birth rate (infants die & parents replace & increase BR).
-in 1900, the IMR for the UK was 154, over 15% of babies died within first year.
-in 2014, it was 4.

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13
Q

Decline in the IMR: Reasons for the fall in IMR

A

-improved housing & betger sanitation (flushing, water reduced infectious diseases impact babies less developed immune systems).
-better nutrition.
-better knowledge of hygiene (child health/welfare).
-fall in no. of married women working.
-improved services for mothers & children (postnatal clinics).

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14
Q

Decline in IMR: Development

A

-50s, medical factors played greater role (mass immunisation against childhood diseases like measles, whooping cough).
-antibiotics to fight infections.
-vaccinations.

In 1950, the UK’s IMR fell to 30 & in 2012, 4.

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15
Q

Decline in IMR: Brass & Kabir’s criticism (1978)

A

Argue that the trend to smaller families be gain not in rural areas, where IMR first began to fall, but in urban areas, where IMR remained higher for longer.

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16
Q

Reasons for the decline in BR: Children are now an economic liability

A

Until the 19th, children were economic assets & could work. Since late 19th, they’re liabilities:
-Laws banning child Labour, introducing compulsory schooling & high school leaving age means they are economically dependant.
-Changing norms about what children have a right to expect from their parents materially means cost of raising children has risen.

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17
Q

Reasons for decline in BR: Child centred ness

A

Parents have fewer children to raise the quality of their lifestyle and lavish more attention and resources on them.

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18
Q

Births: Future trends in BRs

A

Slight increase in births since 2001, though they’ve fallen over the last century.
-This could be due to the increase in immigration as on average, mothers from outside the UK have a higher fertility rate than those in the UK.
-Babies born to mothers outside the UK accounts for 25% of all births in 2011.
-Expected for births up to 2041 to be constant around 800,000 annually.
-Might decrease because of Brexit.

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19
Q

Births: Effects of changes in fertility

A
  1. The family
  2. Dependency ratio
  3. Public services & policies
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20
Q

Effects of changes in fertility: The family

A

-smaller families mean that women are likely to be free to work & create a dual earner couple.
-however, better off families may be able to have larger families & still afford childcare that allows them both to work full-time.

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21
Q

Effects of changes in fertility: The dependancy ratio

A

The dependancy ratio is the relationship between the size of the working part & size of the non-working part of the population.
-The taxes of the working population support the dependant population.
-Children make up a large part of the dependant population so a fall in the amount of them reduced the burden of dependancy.
-Fewer babies born=fewer young adults & smaller working population which could increase BOD again.

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22
Q

The dependancy ratio: Vanishing children

A

Falling fertility rates means fewer children & childhood may become a lonelier experience since less siblings & more childless adults.
Could mean fewer voices for chikd interests.
Coukd mean they will be more valued.

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23
Q

Effects of changes in fertility: Public services & policies

A

-Lower BR=fewer schools, maternity & chikd health services needed.
-Affects cost of maternity/paternity leave & housing that needs to be built.
-Many of these are political decisions.

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24
Q

Public services & policies: An ageing population

A

More old people relative to young.

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25
Q

Deaths: Death rate & trends

A

-Number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.
-Started to fall from 1870 & continued till 1930.
-Rose from 1930-50 due to economic depression & WW2.
-Declined since 1950.

1900-19 per 1000, 2022-9.4 per 1000

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26
Q

Deaths: Reasons for the decline in death rate (Tranter 1996)

A

-Over 3/4s of decline originally was because of infectious diseases often responsible for death of the young.
-By 50s, ‘diseases of affluence’ such as heart disease & cancer replaced infectious diseases as the cause of death.
-These affect elderly more than the young.

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27
Q

Deaths: Reasons for the decline in DR

A
  1. Improved nutrition
  2. Medical improvements
  3. Health consciousness
  4. Public health measures
  5. Other
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28
Q

Reasons for the decline in DR: Improved nutrition (McKeown 1972)

A

-Improved nutrition accounts for up to half the reduction of deaths, particularly for tuberculosis.
-Increased resistance to infection & survival chance for those infected.

:( Doesn’t explain why women wo receive a lower share of food, live longer than men.
:( Doesn’t explain why deaths from infectious diseases (measles/infant diarrhoea) increased at a time of improving nutrition.

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29
Q

Reasons for the decline in DR: Medical improvements

A

-After the 50s, improved knowledge, techniques & organisation reduced DRs.
-NHS in 1948.
-Improved medication (antibiotics), blood transfusions & medical procedures such as bypass surgery etc have reduced deaths by 1/3rd.

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30
Q

Reasons for the decline in DR: Health consciousness (Harper)

A

-Decline in no. of smokers has resulted in a decline in the DR as people are more health conscious.
-However, Harper says that obesity has replaced smoking as the new lifestyle epidemic.
E.g. 2012, 1/4 of all UK adults were obese.

-Though it’s increased, deaths have kept low because of drug therapies.
-Harper says we may be moving to an ‘American’ health culture where there’s unhealthy lifestyles but a long lifespan due to costly medication.

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31
Q

Reasons for the decline in DR: Public health measures

A

-In 20th, more controls in place to enforce laws improving public health & quality of the environment.
-Included improvements in housing (vents/less overcrowd), purer drinking water, laws to combat adulteration of food & drink, cleaner air, improved sewage.
-Clean Air acts reduced air pollution such as the smog that led to 4000 deaths in 5 days in 1952.

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32
Q

Reasons for the decline in DR: Other social changes

A

-Decline in dangerous manual occupations (mining).
-Smaller families reduced transmission of infection.
-Greater public knowledge of illness causes.
-Lifestyle changes (less smokers).
-Higher incomes (allowing a healthier lifestyle).

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33
Q

Evaluation of Improved nutrition

A

-Poorer families cannot afford nutritional food due to the expense.
-Poverty is high so many rely on food banks which may lower their immune system.

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34
Q

Evaluation of Medical Improvements

A

-Little medical knowledge in Covid-19 do more deaths since it’s not been prevented or treated efficiently.
-No cure for mental illness - biggest killer of young men.

35
Q

Evaluation of Health consciousness

A

-Some people are critical of vaccination effects.
-During 2000s, there was a ‘moral panic’ created fearing that vaccinations gave children autism.

36
Q

Evaluation of Public health measures

A

-Govt regulations over Covid-19 have been sporadic so people do not obey or fully understand rules.
-Led to lots of deaths in care homes.

37
Q

Deaths: Life expectancy

A

Increased as death rates have fallen:
-males born in England in 1900 could expect to live till 50 & women 57.
-males born in England in 2013 could expect to live till 90.7 & women 94.

-Low in 1900 because many infants died in early years.
-Harper predicts we will soon achieve radical longevity with more centenarians (over 100).

38
Q

Life expectancy: Class, gender & regional differences

A

-Women live longer though the gap has narrowed (lifestyle-smoking/employment).
-Those in North & Scotland have a lower expectancy than in South.
-W/C men in unskilled jobs are 3X likelier to die before 65, than men in professional jobs.
-According to Walker 2011, those in poor areas of England due in average 7 years earlier than those in richest areas, while the average difference in disability-free life expectancy is 17 years.

39
Q

The ageing population: Trends

A

-Average age of UK is riding. In 1971, it was 34.1 years & 2013, it was 40.3.
-Fewer young people & more older people.
-Aged 65 is equal to number of under-15s for the first time ever in 2014.

40
Q

The ageing population: Age pyramids (Hirsch 2005)

A

-Show how older age groups are growing as a proportion of the population & younger age groups are shrinking.
-Notes that the traditional ‘pyramid’ is diappearing & becoming replaced by more equal sized blocks representing the age groups.
-By 2041, there will be as many 78 year olds as 5 year olds.

41
Q

The ageing population: What is this caused by?

A

-Increased life expectancy
-Declining infant mortality
-Declining fertility

42
Q

The ageing population: Effects of an ageing population

A
  1. Public services
  2. One-person pensioner households
  3. The dependancy ratio
43
Q

Effects of an ageing population: Public services

A

-consume a larger proportion of services than other groups.
-particularly true of the ‘old old’ (over 75) rather than the ‘young old’ (65-74).
-however, many people enter old age with good health.
-could lead to changes to policies, provision of housing, transport or other services etc.

44
Q

Effects of an ageing population: One-person pensioner households

A

-no. of pensioners living alone has increased.
-now account for every 1/8 households.
-most of these are female as women usually outlive husbands.
-among the over-75s there are twice as many women than men - feminisation of lager life.

45
Q

Effects of an ageing population: The dependancy ratio

A

-The non-working are economically dependant & need to be provided for by those of working age.
E.g. taxes to pay pensions & health care.
-As no. of retired increases, this increases dependancy ratio & burden on working population.
E.g. 2015, 3.2 people of working age for every 1 pensioner.
-From 2020, elderly have to wait till 66 to access state pension & will rise to 67 by 2033.

46
Q

Ageism, modernity & postmodernity: Modern society & old age

A

-Our identity and status is determined by our role in the economy, those that don’t work have a stigmatised identity.
-Ageism is the result of structured dependency- old excluded from paid work & economically dependant on state and family.
-Old excluded from role in labour.

47
Q

The ‘third’ age (Marhankova 1989)

A

-Points out how freedom from the demands of the labour market, longer lives & better health & the considerable amount of free time they have.
-Third age refers to when they can develop new lifestyles, seize opportunities & fulfil new identities.

48
Q

Active ageing (Marhankova 2011)

A

-New way of interpreting old age as a period in which activity plays a crucial role.
-Like an identity project to be worked on including if they choose to stay in paid work longer rather than choosing to retire after the state pension age, actively looking after their health through physical activity, contributing through unpaid volunteering, passing on their skills & experiences.

49
Q

Ageism, modernity & Postmodernity: Postmodern society & old age

A

-Argue that the fixed, orderly stages of live course have been broken down.
-E.g. trends such as children dressing in adult styles, later marriages & early retirement all begin to blur the boundaries between the life styles.
-Gives individuals a greater choice of lifestyle.

50
Q

Postmodernity & old age: Hunt (2005)

A

-We can define ourselves by what we consume meaning we can choose our lifestyle and identity, regardless of our age.
-The old become a market for a vast range of ‘body maintenance’ or ‘rejuvenation’ goods (cosmetics/gym/anti ageing etc).
-The centrality of the media media images portray positive aspects of elderly lifestyle.
-The emphasis on surface features body becomes a surface on which we can write identities. Anti ageing products enable old to rewrite identities.

51
Q

Evaluation: Inequality among the old (Pilcher)

A

Argues that inequalities such as class & gender remain important.
-Class: M/C have better occupational pensions & greater savings from higher salaries. Poorer old people have a shorter life expectancy & suffer more infirmity.
-Gender: Women’s lower earning means lowe pensions & they are subject to sexist & ageist stereotyping (‘old hags’).

52
Q

Evaluation: Inequality among the old (Concern 2004)

A

-Postmodernists understate importance of inequalities and how they shape experiences of old age/restrict freedom.
-Older people face discrimination limiting choices:
-Concern found more people (29%) reported suffering age discrimination than any other form.

53
Q

Ageism, modernity & postmodernity: Policy implications - Public services (Hirsch 2005)

A

-Argues that policies need to change to tackle problems with ageing population to care for the ‘old old’.
-E.g. how to finance a longer period of old age.
-Cab be done with paying more from savings and taxes when working.
-Housing may need older people to ‘trade down’ into smaller accommodation.
-Says we need to reverse current trend towards earlier retirement.

54
Q

Migration/Immigration/Emigration/Net migration

A

Migration: movement of people from one area to another.
Immigration: refers to movement into a society.
Emigration: refers to movement out of a society.
Net migration: difference between no, of immigrants and emigrants which is expressed as a net increase/decrease.

55
Q

Emigration

A

-Frim the mid 16th century till the 80s, the UK was a ‘net exporter’ of people (more emigration than immigration).
-Since 1900, emigrants have gone to the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand & SA.
-Push factors - economic recession & unemployment at home.
-Pull factors - higher wages or better opportunities abroad.

56
Q

Immigration before 1950s

A

-1900-WW2 (1945) the largest immigrant group were the Irish who came over to the UK for economic reasons.
-the second largest group we’re Eastern European Jews who were often refugees fleeing persecution.
-very few immigrants were non-white.

57
Q

Immigration after 1950

A

-during the 1950/60s black immigrants from the Caribbean began to arrive in the UK due to labour shortages in the UK.
-during the 60s and 70s, South asian immigrants from Indua, Pakistan, Bangladesh & Sri Lanka came to the UK.
-this is similar for East African Asian immigrants from Kenya & Uganda.

58
Q

Immigration acts

A

Placed severe restrictions on non-wire immigration.
-by the 80s, non whites accounted for little more than a quarter of all immigrants while the mainly white countries of the EU became the main source of settlers in the UK.

59
Q

The impact of migration on UK population structure: Population size

A

The UK population is growing, partly because of immigration.
-Net migration is high with more immigrants (583,000) than emigrants (323,000).
-47% non EU citizens & 38% were EU citizens.
-Natural increase with births exceeding deaths. Births to UK mothered remain low but non-UK mothers accounts for about 25%.

60
Q

The impact of migration on UK population structure: Age structure

A

Immigration lowers the average age of population:
-Directly- immigrants are generally younger (2011, average age of UK passport holders was 41, & non was 31).
-Indirectly- being younger, immigrants are more fertile & produce more babies.

61
Q

The impact of migration on UK population structure: Dependancy ratio

A

-Immigrants are likelier to be of working age, lowering DR. Older migrants also return to country.
-Immigrants have more children, increasing ratio, but those children join work, decreasing ratio.
-The longer a group is in the UK, the closer their fertility rate comes to the national average, reducing DR.

62
Q

Wind rush generation

A

-1948-70, nearly half a million people moved from he Caribbean to Britain, which in 1948 faced severe labour shortages in wake of WW2.
-victims of racism and ignorance towards their citizenships.
-“no blacks, no irish, no dogs.”

63
Q

Immigration laws

A

-Despire UK having more white immigrants than non, severe restrictions placed to stop non white immigration.
-By 80s, only 1/4 were non white.
-1962, conservatives passed the Commonwealth Immigrants act which reduced free movement for citizens of Commonwealth countries.

64
Q

Immigration act 2014

A

-May declared in an interview with the Telgraph that she wanted to create a “really hostile environment” for irregular migrants in the UK.
-Limits access to work, housing, healthcare, bank accounts.
-Wanted to discourage people from coming to the UK, overstaying & accessing essentials.
-To reduce pull factors.

65
Q

The Windrush scandal

A

-The immigration act removed key protections for Commonwealth citizens existing in the Immigration & asylum act.
-Involved 83 wrongful deportations since they were no longer protected under the new immigration act if they hadn’t applied for documentation of their residence.
-Many of the WR gen affected due to l travelling under parents passports as children.

66
Q

Effect of Windrush scandal

A

-1971, immigration act gave Commonwealth citizens that were living in the UK indefinite leave to remain.
-Home office didn’t issue paperwork to record this.
-After Immigration law 2012/14, many UK residents were detained, lost jobs, denied benefits, lost homes, deported.
-Caribbean diplomats campaigned & brought attention to this.

67
Q

Globalisation & Migration

A

Globalisation is the idea that barriers between societies are disappearing & people age becoming increasingly interconnected.
-Result of processes including growth of communication systems, global media, creation of global markets, fall of communism & expansion of the EU.

68
Q

Globalisation & Migration: Acceleration

A

Speeding up in the rate of migration.
-E.g. according to the UN, between 2000-2013, international migration increased by 33% to reach 232 million.
-862,000 entered or left the UK in this year.

69
Q

Globalisation & Migration: Differentiation

A

Many types of migrants (temporary workers/spouses/asylum).
-Glovalisarion increases diversity of migrants.
-Migrants can be legal or illegal.
-Before the 90s, immigration to the UK came from a narrow range of former British colonies & these migrants tended to form a small number of stable, geographically concentrated & homogeneous ethnic communities.

70
Q

Differentiation: Super diversity (Vertovec)

A

-Globalisation led to this where migrants jow come from a much wider range of countries.
-Even within a single ethnic group: individuals differ in terms of their legal status (citizens or spouses).
-Widely dispersed in the UK.

71
Q

Differentiation: Class differences (Cohen 2006)

A

-Citizens with full citizenship rights (voting/benefits). Since the 70s, it’s harder for immigrants to gain these rights.
-Denizens privileged foreigners welcomed by state (billionaire ‘oligarchs’ or highly paid employees of multinational companies).
-Helots (slaves) are the most exploited group. States & employers regard them as ‘disposable units of labour power’ a reserve army of labour. Found in unskilled, poorly paid work & include illegally trafficked workers.

72
Q

Globalisation & Migration: Migrant identities

A

Identity made up from ethnicity, gender, religion.
-For migrants, their country of origin may provide an additional source of identity.
-Eade says migrants can develop hybrid identities made up of 2 or more different sources.
-Second gen Bangladeshi Muslims claimed Islam first and then Bengali, then British

73
Q

Globalisation & Migration: Transnational identities (Eriksen 2007)

A

-Created more diverse migrant patterns with constant movements of people through networks.
-Means migrants are less likely to see selves as belonging to one culture & may develop transnational identities (neither/nor).
-Modern tech makes it harder to maintain global relations without travelling.
-Globalised economy means migrants have more links to other migrants around world than to their country of origin or settlement.
-They are less likely to want to assimilate into the ‘host country’ (Chinese immigrants in Italy found Mandarin more useful than Italian).

74
Q

Globalisation & Migration: Feminisation of migration - Global gendered division of Labour

A

Today, almost half of all migrants are female.
-Jobs fit patriarchal stereotypes.
-Shutes found 40% of adult care nurses in the UK are female migrants.
-Global transfer of women’s emotional labour, ie. migrant nannies provide care for foreign children at the expense of their own in their home country.
-They also enter the country as mail order brides & reflects stereotypes ie. Asian women are subservient.

75
Q

Feminisation of Migration: Ehrenreich & Hoschild (2003)

A

Observe that care, domestic & sec work is done by women in poor countries:
1. Expansion of service occupations led to increased demand for female labour.
2. Western women joining labour force & less doing domestic work.
3. Western men unwilling to perform domestic labour.
4. Failure of state to provide adequate childcare.

76
Q

Feminisation of Migration: Human trafficking

A

Women enter UK illegally through illegal sec & trafficking rings, where women are kept in conditions amounting to slavery.
-Made possible due to global communication and advanced technology such as fake passports.
-More women likely to move for better life for their children.

77
Q

Globalisation & Migration: The politicisation of migration

A

States have policies to control immigration, absorb migrants, deal with diversity.
-2014 Anti-terrorism Act means police can stop & search anyone without cause, which has led to the over policing of Asian communities.

78
Q

The politicisation of migration: Assimilation

A

-Was the first state policy approach to immigration & aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values & customs of the host culture to make them ‘like us’.
-These policies have failed as migrants want to retain aspects of their ‘culture of origin’ & don’t see themselves as belonging to one nation state.

79
Q

The politicisation of migration: British citizenship

A

-If immigrants want to claim citizenship, they must pass with 75% on the test.
-Consists of questions on British history, culture, society & politics.

80
Q

The politicisation of migration: Multiculturalism

A

Accepts that migrants may wish to retain a separate cultural identity but in practice this may be linked to superficial aspects of identity.
-Shallow diversity regarding chicken tikka masala as Britain’s National dish is acceptable to the state.
-Deep diversity such as arranged marriages or veiling women is not acceptable to the state.
-Critics argue that multicultural policies celebrate shallow & superficial cultural differences (samosas/saris) & fail to address deeper problems (racism).

81
Q

Move towards multiculturalism

A

90s, but since the 9/11 attack, many politicians have taken a step backwards demanding that migrants must assimilate culturally.
In France, belong of face made illegal in 2010.

82
Q

The politicisation of migration: Assimilationist policies (Castle 2000)

A

Argues they’re counter productuve since they mark out minority groups as culturally backward or ‘other’.
-may lead to minorities emphasing differences.
-increases host’s suspicion of then as an ‘enemy within’ & may promote anti-terrorism policies to target them.
Creates marginalisation & defeats goal of assimilation.

83
Q

The politicisation of migration: A divided W/C (Castles & Kosack)

A

-May encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems such as unemployment, resulting in racust scapegoating.
-Say this benefits capitalism by creating a racially divided W/C & preventing United action in defence of their interests.

AQA A-level Sociology (12 decks)

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