WSET D3 - Australia Flashcards
Summarise the history of Australian wine industry.
Vines arrived with first settlers in 1788.
First half of 19th century commercial viticulture spread throughout all states which today produce significant amounts of wine: New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia. This developed largely from collection of cuttings of European vines brought to Australia by Scotsman James Busby in early 1830s and subsequently by European immigrants.
Although phylloxera eventually found spread to Australia, strict quarantine regulations enabled most areas, notably South Australia, remain phylloxera free. As a result, Australia is home to some oldest plantings in world of several varieties still growing on own roots, such as Shiraz, CS and Grenache.
The first exports recorded in 1850s but phylloxera outbreak in Europe gave Australia a golden opportunity to export wines, particularly to UK. As Europe recovered from phylloxera, Australia shifted focus back to domestic market, in particular to fortified wine, mainly from Muscat Gordo Blanco (Muscat of Alexandria), Shiraz and Grenache. However, after World War II, further waves of European immigrants and Australian tourists returning from Europe increased demand for dry, non- fortified wines.
From 1950s onwards, many companies dominate Australian wine scene today began their rise to prominence, including Orlando (now Jacob’s Creek), Lindemans, Hardys and Penfolds. These companies started to modernise industry, pioneering use of stainless steel tanks and temperature control. 1970s saw dawn of boutique winery movement and planting or re-planting vineyards in cooler regions.
It was not until second half of 1980s, Australian wine industry shifted its focus to export market. Its generic body, Wine of Australia, developed completely new approach to marketing wine, embracing modern advertising. Australians led the way in labelling wines by variety and providing taste descriptors on labels, making wine more accessible. Wines \
also accessible, with ripe fruits and often vanilla and coconut oak flavours. This was hugely successful and, early 2000s, become world’s 5th largest exporter.
Same period, plantings rose rapidly. However since then, plantings fallen back. This is due to 1. huge oversupply: other non-European countries started to follow Australian model, creating increased competition on export markets. 2. reducing demand for inexpensive Australian wine. 3. situation was made worse by strength of Australian dollar, particularly following 2008 financial crisis, made Australian wine more expensive than eg. Argentina and Chile. Large producers forced down grape prices in order to keep retail prices competitive 4. while a series of serious droughts significantly pushed up cost of water for irrigation, considerable number of growers simply forced out of business.
However, these also led many to shift their focus from inexpensive, high-volume wines to smaller production and higher-priced bottlings, which helped to maintain Australia’s strong position on export markets.
What’s the climate like in Australia?
Much covered by desert and tropical rainforests and so is too hot for viticulture. Vineyards therefore mainly confined to south-eastern corner in states of Southern Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania, with a further cluster on opposite side in Western Australia. Most lie between 30°- 37°S (equivalent of North Africa and Southern Europe), benefitting from intense sunlight. Although some vineyards in Queensland to north, island Tasmania to south is notable exception (41° - 42°S) (Porto and central Italy).
Vineyards cover a large area and therefore wide range of different climates. Inland, vast Murray-Darling Basin has a hot, continental climate. However, most other regions rely on cooling influences. Many situated close to coast of either Indian or Southern Oceans, moderate daily and seasonal temperatures.
Relatively flat country and often little to stop cooling influence of oceans spreading some distance inland: eg, Coonawarra in South Australia is around 100km from coast yet still considered maritime climate. There are however, some mountain ranges, most notably Great Dividing Range runs from Queensland to western Victoria. Producers increasingly seeking out cooler sites at altitude within mountain range, such as in Orange, Macedon and Grampians, to produce lighter bodied, more elegant styles.
In cooler areas, spring frosts may be an issue, careful selection of site drains cold air is required to mitigate this. Winds blowing in off the ocean help reduce risk of frost but can sometimes disrupt fruit set.
Great Dividing Range also creates a barrier protecting many of south-eastern Australia’s vineyards from tropical weather systems come in from Pacific Ocean to northeast. The regions in its rain shadow get very low rainfall: Riverland, eg, gets average 135 mm during growing season. In contrast, Hunter Valley, only major wine-producing region to east of mountain range, gets 500 mm and has a distinctive hot and humid climate.
Low rainfall means drought is constant threat in much Australia and there have been number of long periods drought recent years. Worst cases, even rivers of Murray-Darling basin (vital source of irrigation water), have run low.
What are the main soil types found in Australia?
Oldest continents, individual land mass for over 100 million years. Over millennia, developed a very complex geology and virtually all known rock types can be found. Wide variety soil types and some regions are well-known for their distinctive soils, such as Coonawarra’s terra rossa. Great diversity within individual regions: in McLaren Vale, eg, 40 unique soil types have been identified, varying from 15,000 to over 550 million years old.
Vineyard management.
2018, Australia was 7th largest producer, depending on vintage can compete with Argentina and Chile for 5th or 6th. Despite a fall in area under vine, production generally steady.
Australia has a very favourable environment for viticulture: plenty intense sunshine, relatively low rainfall and, in many regions, low humidity - disease pressure is low. Grapes ripen reliably most years, except in extreme cases ( 2011, unusually wet).
Due to climate, most varieties reach optimum ripeness within very narrow window of time. Means harvesting must carried out as quickly and efficiently as possible and it is usual to pick certain varieties early.
Much of Australia remained phylloxera-free, including whole of South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania. Much of their original planting material was brought from Europe prior to outbreak and strict quarantine and biosecurity laws prevented any contamination. Despite this, newer vineyards often planted on selected rootstock as insurance against phylloxera risk or to combat acidity and salinity in soils. Phylloxera however, present in parts of Victoria and New South Wales.
What are the main Hazard and pests?
- lack of water. Majority rely on irrigation, even wetter areas due to free-draining soils. Historically from rivers of Murray- Darling Basin but recent serious droughts, these started to run low. Some regions: higher winter rainfall (Adelaide Hills or Margaret River, store rainwater in dams until needed in summer, whilst some, notably McLaren Vale and Coonawarra, use underground water. McLaren Vale also leading on sustainable water resources using recycled wastewater. Drip irrigation encouraged.
- Soil salinity. Over time, soils can become more saline as not enough rainfall to carry away salts deposited in irrigation water or because saline water in deeper aquifers may find its way to surface. It make vines more difficult to get water and leads to reduced vine growth and possibly death. Chardonnay particularly sensitive, however, can be managed through suitable rootstocks and changing irrigation to larger volumes of water at less frequent intervals.
- Bush fires (hot, dry summers). Even if do not damage vineyards, smoke can contact with grapes causing a pungent, bitter taint.
- Birds and kangaroos. Netting can be used against birds (expensive); no sustainable solution found to protect against kangaroos.
What training and pruning systems are used in Australia?
With heat, and sufficient water, vines grow vigorously. Careful vineyard management necessary for even ripening, especially more fertile soils. Some areas, particularly South Australia, have significant stocks old vines, especially Shiraz and Grenache, naturally combat high vigour. However, new plantings, divided canopy systems such as Scott-Henry and Smart-Dyson been used to manage vigour and ensure vine balance.
Is mechanisation widely used in Australia?
Heavily mechanised, helped by wide vine spacing, most on flat or gently sloping land. Unit labour costs relatively high and some regions are remote from population centres, so many use mechanise as much as they can. Some harvest by hand (at least most expensive wines) greater selection of fruit , or maintain whole bunches.
How’s sustainable vine growing developed here?
Many low humidity: exceptions include Adelaide Hills, southern Victoria, Hunter Valley and parts of Tasmania, open canopies essential to maximise air flow. Where climate is warm and dry, rot and mildew rarely a concern. Sustainable Winegrowing Australia is national sustainability program, 2020, its members owned 25% vineyard land and 25% production.
Top grape varieties.
Shiraz
Chardonnay
Cabernet Sauvignon
Merlot
Sauvignon Blanc
Pinot Gris
Muscat Gordo Blanco
Semillion
Colombard
Pinot Noir
Riesling
Sumamrise the development of Australian grapes.
Although small percentage, ‘alternative varieties’ increased recent years. Many found in countries around Mediterranean, such as Tempranillo, Sangiovese, Fiano and Assyrtiko, well suited to Australia’s warm and dry regions.
Wine at all price points. Even largest companies produce high-end wines alongside inexpensive or mid-priced ones.
Many viticulturists and winemakers have been through one of several wine schools opened up in past few decades and benefit from industry-focused research carried out by Australian Wine Research Institute in Adelaide.
Late 20th century, incredibly successful at full-bodied, ripe, fruity red and whites (well-equipped wineries, scientifically trained winemakers, scrupulous hygiene, use of new oak). Last 10–20 years, styles begun to evolve and diversify. Some from site selection, vineyard management and precise harvesting dates. In winery, increasing experimentation with ambient yeasts; skin contact, lees contact and solids in fermentation in whites; whole bunch and stem inclusion in reds, especially premium and small-volume wines.
Australian winemakers enthusiastically adopted screwcaps and majority, even at premium prices, sealed with these.
Describe Shiraz.
Most planted, hugely successful on export markets, flagship variety.
Adaptable, wide variety of styles. Hotter regions, (Barossa Valley and McLaren Vale), usually full-bodied, high alcohol with high soft tannins and pronounced dark fruit alongside earthy and spicy notes. Tend to develop leathery characteristics with age. Cooler regions (Yarra Valley and Grampians), tends to be less full-bodied with M alcohol, less intensely fruity with red and black cherry and a distinct black pepper characteristic. Often combined in multi-regional blended wines.
General trend is less intense, more approachable styles. Achieved by reducing extraction, by using whole bunch fermentation and/or reducing new oak. (American oak is traditional, but French oak increasing) Very good and outstanding Shiraz often made in open fermentation tanks with manual or mechanised punch downs for soft extraction.
Shiraz widely used in blends, including Rhône-style ‘GSM’ with Grenache and Mourvèdre (Mataro in Australia). Shiraz-Viognier blends also produced: more premium wines tend to be co-fermented as in Côte-Rôtie, cheaper wines blended post-fermentation. Shiraz also blended with CS to give softness and body, performing similar to Merlot in Bordeaux.
Describe Cabernet Sauvignon in Australia.
Capable of outstanding single varietal as well as blends with other Bordeaux varieties and Shiraz. Single-varietal range between cooler and warmer climate styles but all tend to be higher acidity and tannins than Shiraz, with ripe black fruit of blackcurrant and cherry. At higher price points, tend to have oak characteristics. Two leading regions are Coonawarra (distinctive mint or eucalyptus aromas), and Margaret River (often blended with Merlot, slightly riper with more subtle herbal notes).
Describe Merlot.
Widely used in blends, especially with CS, although single-varietal produced in full range styles, from M-bodied with M tannins and red fruit to fuller-bodied with riper, black fruit . Better clones recent years raising quality.
Describe Pinot Noir.
Widely grown in cool and moderate regions (Yarra Valley, Mornington Peninsula and Tasmania). M-bodied with M alcohol, M to high acidity and red fruit (cherry and strawberry). Techniques: whole bunch fermentation, cold maceration to enhance colour and flavours and stem inclusion to influence tannic structure variously used.
Maturation in French oak common, similar to other black varieties, new oak is reducing.
Describe Grenache.
1% but important variety. Until recently, mainly used in Rhône-style blends alongside Shiraz and Mataro. However, following recognition of quality of fruit from old bush vines, particularly in McLaren Vale, Eden Valley and Barossa Valley, Increasingly seen as single-varietal wine. Traditionally low acidity, high alcohol, almost More modern style greater freshness, higher acidity, slightly lower alcohol and fresher red fruit. Sometimes proportion whole bunches or stem inclusion to enhance aromas and tannin structure. Small new oak barrels tend to overwhelm flavours and structure so now many using old oak and/or large barrel for maturation.
Describe Chardonnay.
Most planted white variety, almost every region. General style evolved, from ripe with overt oak to picked earlier to obtain much leaner style. Inexpensive wines tank-fermented, sometimes little oak (chips, staves or barrels no longer used for premium wines). For high quality many found a middle ground, producing wines with ripe fruit (citrus and peach) balanced by M to M (+) acidity and well-integrated oak. Complexity, balance and texture from techniques such as ambient yeasts, leaving a high solids in fermentation, barrel fermentation, lees ageing and barrel maturation, typically French oak. Malo, either full, partial or none, depends on climate and style. For warmer areas malo may blocked to retain acidity; cooler areas, may carried out to reduce acidity and increase complexity and body. Some inexpensive wines, blend with Semillon, bringing ripe fruit to blend.
Describe Sauvignon Blanc.
Widely planted, both cooler regions for mid-priced wines, also hotter regions with higher yields for inexpensive wines.
Less herbaceous than Marlborough, particularly Adelaide Hills developed reputation for some Australia’s best examples. Intense fruit from citrus to tropical. Usually fermented in stainless steel but some use lees contact or barrel fermentation in used oak to produce more full-bodied wines. Margaret River, mainly blended with Semillon for a Bordeaux-style blend.
Describe Pinot Grigio.
Picked either early for neutral style associated with Veneto or riper to produce fruitier, more spicy and full-bodied style associated with Alsace, although rarely as full-bodied.
Labelled to reflect style. Some finest labelled as Pinot Gris come from Victoria, in particular Mornington Peninsula, and Tasmania.
Describe Semillon.
Most notable is low alcohol, high acidity, unoaked style in Hunter Valley: fairly neutral in youth, develops great complexity with bottle age. Barossa Valley traditionally produced fuller- bodied Semillon with higher alcohol and flavours from oak maturation; however, tend not be as age worthy as Hunter Valley. Some now picking earlier to produce lighter style with little or no oak influence. Semillon frequently affected by noble rot on some sites in Riverina of NSW, where it makes complex sweet wines.
Describe Riesling.
Cooler regions (Clare and Eden Valleys increasingly Great Southern, Canberra and Tasmania), reputation for excellent Riesling. Although sweeter, late-harvest styles are found, mostly bone dry with high acidity. Flavours range from apple, to lemon, grapefruit and lime, to peach. Most fermented in stainless steel and bottled soon after to keep vibrant fruit and floral aromas. Premium wines may made solely with free-run juice, high in sugar and acidity and low in phenolic compounds such as tannins. However, some experimenting with pre-fermentation skin contact and lees ageing to add texture and weight.
Describe Muscat Gordo Blanco and Colombard.
Muscat Gordo Blanco (Muscat of Alexandria) and Colombard grown in hot, inland Riverland, Murray-Darling and Riverina, Colombard generally used as a neutral, cheap blending partner with more widely known varieties, such as Chardonnay in inexpensive wines. Plantings decreasing last 10–15 years. Muscat Gordo Blanco also used as a cheap blending partner in still wines but also sparkling Moscato wines.
How did Australian’s GI system divided the wine regions ?
Zones, regions, sub-regions.
Zones – no rules regarding drawing boundaries and no requirements for shared geographic or climatic characteristics. Can cover entire state (such as in South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Western Australia) and one, South Eastern Australia, covers several. Most states divided into further zones. Examples in South Australia include Barossa, Mount Lofty Ranges and Fleurieu: these 3 zones also make up larger Adelaide ‘super zone’. With exception of Barossa, however, names of these smaller zones rarely appear on labels, region more often used.
Regions – 63 registered: eg: Coonawarra, Clare Valley and Margaret River. Must have consistent and distinct qualities. A region must usually produce at least 500 tonnes grapes a year across at least 5 differently owned vineyards each at least 5 ha. State of Tasmania treated as a region rather than a zone.
Sub-regions – 14 sub-regions registered (most notably in Hunter Valley and Great Southern)
Hierarchy gives range of labelling options. eg, wines from Eden Valley Region could be labelled as Eden Valley, Barossa, Adelaide, South Australia or South Eastern Australia. Usually use of zone on label reflects multi- regional blending.
What is LIP and what does it regulate?
Australian wine labelling is governed by Label Integrity Programme (LIP). If a GI, vintage or variety mentioned on label, 85% grapes must conform. If multiple varieties are mentioned, must be listed in descending order of how much they contribute to blend. Aim is to ensure labels truthfully reflect what is in bottle. Growers, producers and suppliers required to keep detailed records which regularly audited by Australia Grape and Wine Authority (trading as Wine Australia) oversees LIP. Otherwise, there are no GI-based rules regarding grape growing and winemaking.
Summarise South Eastern Australian Zone.
Covers whole of Victoria, NSW and Tasmania, along with south-eastern corners South Australia and Queensland. Created to allow blending grapes grown across zone and majority labelled as such are inexpensive, high-volume.
Most grapes from Murray–Darling Basin, formed by Murray and Darling Rivers and tributaries. 3 main regions are Riverland, along Murray River in South Australia; Murray-Darling, along both rivers falls within both Victoria and NSW, and Riverina, on Murrumbidgee River (a major tributary to Murray River) in NSW. Riverland is in Lower Murray Zone, Murray-Darling and Riverina are in Big Rivers Zone.
Hot and continental, although rivers provide slight cooling influence. Despite 200 km inland, Riverland is little less hot benefits from slight maritime influence (no mountains between it and coast). Provide ideal conditions for consistently high yields healthy grapes. Number of biggest producers have bases in these regions, including Casella Family Brands (Yellow Tail), De Bortoli in Riverina, Australian Vintage in Riverland and Lindeman’s (part of Treasury Wine Estates) in Murray Darling.
In rain shadow of Great Dividing Range, rainfall is very low (little as 135 mm during growing season in Riverland). Together with predominantly sandy soils, irrigation is essential. Water provided by rivers but recent droughts, levels fallen alarmingly low in some places. Significant increases water prices, coupled with falling grape prices, pushed some growers out of business.
Main grapes are Shiraz and Chardonnay, as well as Semillon in Riverina. M-bodied, high alcohol, relatively low acidity and ripe fruit. Depending on desired price, producers may blend grapes from other regions to give slightly more flavour, balance and complexity.
However, some higher-quality wines emerged, notably better- balanced, more complex Shiraz and Chardonnay from lower-yielding vineyards and from varieties better suited to hot climate like Petit Verdot, Viognier and Vermentino, Nero d’Avola and Montepulciano. Area around Griffith in Riverina has a long-established reputation for sweet, botrytised Semillon. Although dry and hot in summer, autumn brings greater rainfall and humidity, morning mists and afternoons still warm and sunny, ideal for noble rot. Tend to be labelled with individual region’s name rather than South-Eastern.
