Work poverty and welfare Flashcards
What is the definition of absolute poverty and who conceptualised it ?
Unable to afford the basic necessities of life. Rowntree
What are the adv and disadv of AP?
-clear measure of who is in poverty
-able to compare to other societies
-fails to take into consideration different economic and social times
-what is the min. standard of clothing and what is an acceptable diet
-different people consider different things as essential
What is the definition of relative poverty and who conceptualised it?
When a person is unable to afford the standard of living deemed acceptable by the majority of people in a society. Townsend Based on the deprivation index.
What are the adv and disadv of RP?
-links to the expectation of society
-reflects that people do measure their own quality of life
-broadens the idea of what poverty is
-can only be used/compared to one society
-difficulties of what is normal and abnormal standards of living
-no matter how rich a country gets poverty will always exist.
How do households below average income measure relative poverty?
Measures income as a proportion of typical household income a family is in poverty if they earn less than 60% of the median british income.
How do consensual measure relative poverty?
Measures the extent of poverty in terms of what possessions and services the majority of people think are necessary in society people are asked to rank what the necessities are.
What is social exclusion and how is it measured?
when people suffer a series of linked problems such as unemployment which prevent them from enjoying full membership of society. Its measured in terms of employment,income,education attainment and mental/physical health.
What is subjective poverty?
A type of relative poverty which is based on the notion of felt poverty.
What is the functionalist explanation for poverty and what theorists apply?
Poverty is necessary and therefore functional.
Theorists: Davis and Moore, Gans
What do Davis and Moore argue ?
Argue that inequalities in wealth and income are necessary to maintain society. The system is meritocratic as people who gain the most wealth are those that are the most suitable and have the skills to deliver these roles most effectively. People need to be motivated and therefore need rewards.
What do Davis and Moore/Gans argue?
Argue that poverty also has important functions in contributing to stability of society. The most undesirable jobs still have to be preformed and poverty means they have no other choice but to do them poverty also creates jobs in a range of occupations who deal with the impact of poverty.The threat of poverty provides motivation even though their rewards are low and the existence of low paid keeps some jobs running.
AO3 for functionalist approach to poverty
Which roles are more important?
Wealth is inherited rather than earnt due to hard work
Material rewards are not the only means of motivating people
What is the NR approach to poverty and which theorists apply?
The poor have certain cultural attitudes which are the cause of their poverty. Marsland and murray, Urray, Oscar lewis
What does Urray argue?
Argues that the welfare state is a major cause of poverty by encouraging welfare dependency.
What does Murray argue?
Argues that the poor are a distinct subculture group which he calls the underclass. He argues that the equal distribution of wealth is fair however over generous welfare benefits have created welfare dependency culture. He argues that these benefits may also incentivise being poor giving people no desire to work and complete lower paid jobs and traps them into a life of poverty.
What does Oscar Lewis argue?
He shares the idea that the poor are poor because they have certain values which trap them into poverty(a fatalistic attitude)
AO3 of NR explanations of poverty
Poverty doesn’t incentivise the poor to do undesirable jobs they may feel resentment, social exclusion and marginalisation which then creates conflict and division in society and threatens social stability.
What is the weberian explanation of poverty and any relevant theorists?
The poor have a weak market situation. Weber
What does Weber argue?
He argued that inequalities in wealth and income and the existence of poverty arise from the different market situation of individuals, the different skills that people have and the different rewards attached to them when they sell their labour in the job market. Others get rewards because some talents and skills are valued more by society than others. Those in poverty are marginalised because they lack education and skills to bring them higher rewards others cant participate as theyre sick or elderly.
What is the marxists explanation for poverty and relevant theorists?
Poverty is a result of economic inequality and the exploitation of a section of the working class by the ruling class. Miliband, Westergaard and Resler
What do marxists argue about poverty?
The main reason for inequalities in wealth and income and the existence of poverty lies in the private ownership of the means of production. Poverty is a result of capitalism the threat of poverty and unemployment motivates workers and provides cheap labour. The existence of the non working poor keeps the wages down, poverty also divides the WC by separating the poor from the non poor WC and therefore preventing WC consciousness
AO3 of marxists view on poverty
Doesn’t explain inequalities between men and women able bodied and disabled and between ethnic groups
Why are children more likely to be in poverty according to Hirsch?
Hirsch argues that poverty causes children harm on their health, psychological well being and education and increases their chance of being in poverty in adulthood.
What are the underlying factors influencing high levels of child poverty in the uk? - Hirsch
Lone parenthood- high levels of parents may not be in work, inadequate policies and benefits supporting childcare and flexible working which makes it difficult for parents who want to work support their children
Low pay of parents- may children are in homes where parents suffer low pay
Disability of parent- links to unemployment and low pay
AO3 of underlying factors of child poverty in the uk
Poverty has certain consequences for children:
-Children may suffer food poverty, the lack of access to a healthy diet which lead to ill health e.g. damp and cold conditions lead to asthma which in turn impacts their education and lifestyle (Mack and Lansley)
-Before reaching 2 a child from a poorer family is more likely to show a lower level of attainment this continues throughout education leading to fewer qualification and then low skilled work.
Some groups of children are more vulnerable, the homeless,parents who are disabled,Pakistani children,asylum seekers
Why are the elderly more likely to experience poverty?
Age Uk has suggested that just under a mil pensioners lived in severe poverty restricting their diet and ability to heat their homes.Fuel poverty is a problem because fuel costs are high.
AO3 of why the elderly are more likely to experience poverty?
Single elderly women may be more likely to live in poverty so its too simplistic to see all elderly the same. Elderly women receive less in state and private pensions and are less likely to claim benefits their entitled to.
However Mack and Lansley argue that free bus passes, winter fuel allowance and better occupational pensions have lifted pensioners out of poverty.
According to westergaard and resler 1976 (Marxists) how does poverty motivate workers?
They argue that the persistence of poverty aids capitalism as it creates the conditions for people to accept their position as low paid workers rather than face further poverty
Poverty is therefore maintained through higher levels of unemployment and underemployment-using fear of poverty to control workers as a result the workers accept lower wages and demand less in additional benefits in order to be sure of having income-e.g zero hour contracts
According to milliband 1974 Marxists how social exclusion result from poverty?
He argues that those in poverty are impacted by social exclusion-including a lack of access to power
Lack of access to power can lead to further exploitation as they are unable to challenge the inequalities of societies structure
Growth of trade unions throughout early 20th century offered some power to workers in tackling inequalities in work providing some workers with political power but this has largely reduced in late 20th and early 21st century
What has age uk suggested about the elderly being in poverty?
They suggested that just under a million pensioners lived in severe poverty-restricting their diet and ability to heat their homes-fuel poverty is a problem because fuel costs are high
What is marslands view on poverty as a new right ?
Marsland argues the extent of poverty is society is exaggerated by critical theorists and that poverty is necessary as a motivation for work
Social policies in the post war era have developed an over generous system of state benefits that have limited individuals ability to fend for themselves
The culture of poverty needs to be challenged through cutting universal benefits and providing incentives to work
What does lister argue about wealth. ?
Argues that wealth is less evenly distributed than income
5 households have more money than over 12 million people put together
1/3 of wealth is inherited and most of the rich live on unearned income
What are the patterns of distribution of poverty?
21% of the population are living in poverty
Patterns if theses groups suggests poverty isn’t caused by individual inadequacies but social circumstances those experiencing poverty tend to be:
-older people,those with low paid jobs,children,disabled,some ethnic minorities/bangladeshi and Pakistani,some women
The working class are less likely to have pension,sick pay protection,redundancy pay,even generous relatives and therefore have less of a safety net
According to Kersley and shaheen what are the main drivers of growing economic inequality?
Globalisation-outsourcing manufacturing to developing countries has undermined the position of low skilled workers in wealthier nations
Financialisation-this sector has become powerful and the uk makes money from money rather than making things people with money now invest for example in houses and earn more than those dependant on wages
Declining trade union membership means the power of collective bargaining has reduced
Decline trade union membership
Gov redistribution polices
Corporate capture
What measures has the government brought to redistribute wealth?
Inheritance tax
Direct taxes taken from earnings-tends to be progressive the more you earn the more you get taxed
Indirect taxes taken e.g. vat tends to be regressive-hit the poor the hardest these have increased
Capital gains tax-attempts to reduce profit from unearned income e.g. property
Social welfare benefits=direct resources and are paid for through tax these can be cash benefits paid to lower earners and the unemployment and benefits in kind which are freely available e.g. education/health
Tax and benefits system reduce inequalities by 2/3rds but these measures haven’t eradicated income inequality
How do the rich benefit from the taxation system?
Tax relief- on business expenses,school fees and private pensions
Tax avoidance schemes- loopholes mean that tax can be avoided
Many of the super rich have come to live in the uk as they can claim non domicile. Status and avoid paying tax
What is the pattern in gender and poverty?
The feminisation of poverty- overall women are no more likely to experience poverty than men however single female pensioners face a higher risk of poverty than their male equivalents in terms of ethnicity white British women have the lowest levels of poverty followed by Chinese. Pakistani and Bangladeshi women have extremely high poverty rates of around 50%
What are the reasons for women being in poverty? And what do barnard and Middleton say about this
Woemn are more likely to be in low paid and part time jobs-many woemn are forced to combine paid employment with childcare
Barnard argues that this is one of the key factors impacting on women who have to take part time,lower skills jobs to fit around children this impacts on lower skilled women who are consequently pushed further down the jobs ladder
Women sacrifice their own standard of living to provide food,clothing and extras for children
Middleton found it is women that are trying to make ends meet in addition they are more likely to be lone parents which may restrict the work they are able to do
Women live longer and retire earlier due to lower paid work and time for childbearing they are less likely yo have savings/pensions for old age
What is an evaluation point to prove that times have changed in gender inequality?
The poverty gender pay gap has halved over the past decade
What did palmer find about patterns in poverty and disability?
Palmer found that the poverty rate is 2x the rate of none disabled people
What is the reason for disabled people being 2x more likely to be in poverty than normal people?
Palmer-unemployment (4x more likely to be out of work/low paid jobs=lower pension)
Employer discrimination -employers have a poor attitude to disability and discriminate. In 2014 the conservative welfare reform minister claimed that some disabled people were not worth paying the minimum wage to
What is another reason that disabled people are more likely yo be in poverty?
Inability to work and consequently dependency on welfare benefits. Inadequate welfare benefits haven’t kept up with those available for children and pensioners.
Kaye found that thousands of disabled people were wrongly declared fit to work and therefore their benefits were cut local councils cut 2 billion from their care budgets and putting up charges for essential services such as transport the government has withdrawn the independent living fund and restricted the number of benefits changes to the benefits system including universal credit and the introduction of the bedroom tax has made it difficult in addition a planned move to make the application for benefits online will be problematic as currently just over half of disabled people have access to the internet
How can the decrease of help form the government for the disabled be evaluated by Marxists ?
From a Marxist point of view this is evidence that people’s worth is judged in terms of of their productivity of they aren’t seen to be productive they can be marganlised
How can the family type you have increase your risk of being in poverty?
Lone parent families- there are 2 reasons why single mum are likely to be poor-women from poorer backgrounds have a higher risk of becoming single parents in the first place
Any single parent is likely to experience poverty as they haven’t got another person to pool resources with
Larger families often rely on one wage whilst the other parent works Pakistani/bangladeshi tend to have larger families and combines with low work this increases poverty levels
How does being unemployed increase your risk of being. In poverty?
About 75% of unemployed people live in poverty after 3 months of unemployment the average disposable income of a family drops by 2/3rds unemployment has impacts both on material and psychological well. Being
Langsley and Mack argue that the unemployment rate in the uk gives a false picture of unemployment because there has been a rise in underemployment with zero hour contracts and also a rise in the self employed as people fail to find work in organisations or jobs centres encourage it to reduce unemployment statistics
How does being low paid increase your risk of being in poverty?
1 in 5 employees earn less than the living wage these people. Are likely yo be young people
The number of people experiencing in work poverty exceeded work less poverty the number of working families receiving working tax credit-payments to top up wages-has risen by 50% since 2003.
Mack and Lansley refer to young people as the jilted generation because they are the first gen to see their income stagnate they argue that zero hour contracts and the growth of bad jobs have led to little security for workers this can cause mental health issues
Standing refers to the low paid workforce as the precariat-they experience precarious employment,minimal rights,coercive management and unsocial hours
How are rural areas associate with poverty?
Palmer challenges the myth that poverty is just confined to urban areas like housing estates looking at rural areas in the east of England he found a sixth world be classed as living in poverty even though most had one person working therefore this issue was about low pay
The stigma of poverty Mack and lansley observe that the media portray an image that the poor deserve to be punished this view has allowed the coalition government to introduce austerity measures which sanctioned this not seen to be trying yo lift themselves out of poverty they not that these cuts have disproportionally affected the poor by making them poorer
What is welfare pluralism?
The state,private companies,voluntary organisations,charities,families are all involved in the provision of welfare
What is the welfare pluralism debate?
Some argue this range of services provides a better service due to competition improving quality and choice. However others argue that private companies aren’t affordable for everyone leading to unequal access to care and a 2-tier-system -one for the rich and one for the poor
What wide range of benefits and services were paid by taxation?
A range of benefits-jobseekers allowance,housing benefits,income support,pension credit,council tax benefit. These are means tested and related to a persons income in 2012 it was proposed that benefits related to being out of work should become a single universal benefit -this became universal credit
NHS-including hospitals,GPs
Free,compulsory state education for all to age of 18
Social services provided by local councils-social workers,housing and adoption services
What is the welfare state according to beveridge report 1942?
Created due to concerned with implementing social policies paid through taxation
The report suggested the development of state run welfare services-backed up by voluntary organisations
The welfare states started with the (labour) which aimed to tackle 5 social evils
What are the 5 social evils?
Poverty (want)-payment of unemployment and sickness benefits
Ignorance- free secondary education until 15
Disease-NHS was set up
Squalor(poor housing )-house building to get rid of poor quality slums
Idleness(unemployment)-promise to never return to a period of mass unemployment as seen in the 1930s
What are 3 advantages of the creation of the welfare state ?
-provides all with cradle to grave support
-provides a safety net when informal/voluntary fail
-redistributes wealth through taxation and provision of welfare
What is a negative of the welfare state?
Much welfare provision assumes women don’t need the same level of social security,as their husband will support them,despite the fact that women are involved in paid work outside of home
What did the informal welfare provision provide?
Provided free by relatives and friends-includes help such as childcare,housework or lending money
What is a strength of the informal welfare provision?
Informal care saves the uk economy 119 billion pounds a year
Why do feminists criticise the informal welfare provision?
Feminists argue that this falls largely to women
What is the voluntary sector (3rd sector)?
Usually charities that aren’t for profit. Can be funded by donations or paid by the state. Include groups such as the Salvation Army,shelter,age uk,NSPCC, the church
What are 2 advantage of the voluntary sector?
-able to help with a range of issues such as domestic violence,mental health,where state provision is lacking-cheaper services and high levels of expertise
-act as pressure groups and highlight weaknesses of the welfare state making recommendations to govn regarding policy
What are 2 disadvantages of the voluntary sector?
-lack adequate funds
-don’t exist in all areas
What is the private sector?
Consists of both profit and not for profit private business from which individuals or local/central govn purchase welfare services. Includes private hospitals,schools,care homes,health assessments for the dept
For work-provided under contract to the state
E.g. BUPA,care homes
Why do new right like the private sector?
New right see this sector as more efficient/lower costs/choice-due to competing businesses
What are disadvantages of the private sector?
-access to the private sector is only available for those who can affford it they can queue jump
Profit can become more important than care
What are the 5 types of welfare?
-state-govn agencies and are paid for through taxation
-private-business that are profit or not for profit organisations
-voluntary-non profit making organisations
-informal-provided by family and friends
-mixed economy/welfare pluralism -involves all the types above
What do new right say about the state welfare?
The nanny state/too much state provision has undermined personal responsibility and self help=created a dependency culture and an underclass who have lived off benefits=undermined the importance of families to offer support and encouraged single parenthood as women realise they can get state welfare alone
Any state benefit should be restricted to the very poor- the population should have to pay/look after themselves
What do feminism say about the state welfare?
Benefits system is based on contributions built up by full time workers therefore women are less likely to benefit from a full state pension- its assumed that women are financially supported by men they would also question the increasing medicalization of certain life events such as childbirth- perhaps suggesting that the state is patriarchal in its dealings with with women and their welfare
What do Marxist say about the state welfare?
Acts to cement false class consciousness of the working classes who believe society/state is supporting them through facilities such as the NHS but in reality according to Althusser it’s simply getting them back to work and preventing unrest
What do social democrats say about the state welfare?
Support state welfare-provides a safety net-is provided on client need rather than cost.the govn should be responsible for social welfare and for ways of eliminating problems such as unemployment/poverty. Benefits and health care should be available to all to reduce social inequality,provide womb to tomb care. Benefits should be universal to avoid a stigma attached to welfare.also universal provision such as state education is beneficial to society- creates a cohesive society
What do new right say about the private welfare?
See the private sector as more efficient and effective than state provision-provides services at a lower cost and offers choice- businesses have to compete for customers and therefore need to provide a decent service if they are to survive
What do Marxists say about the private welfare?
Access to the private sector is only available to those who can afford it -there is a 2 tier system with those who can afford benefitting the most-e.g. queue jumping by seeing an NHS consultant. Cost cutting can occur.service to the person is less of a priority
What do the feminsts say about the private welfare?
Would argue that women would be viewed for the profit they could create the companies rather than as service users. In addition they argue that the unpaid work of women as carers props up the private sector,as well as state welfare provision
What would the social democratic say about the private welfare?
Argue that private business involvement in welfare provision moves attention to profit making rather than looking after the person, in addition it may increase the desire to means test to save money which they disagree with
What do newright say about the voluntary welfare?
Would argue that if charities want to assist in welfare then this is up to them but they should not rely on state grants
What do Marxists say about the voluntary welfare?
These charities ease the problem for the working classes but in doing so disguise the nature of capitalism and maintain inequality as the state fails to take responsibility for its citizens
What do feminsts say about the voluntary welfare?
There are many charities that give help to women however if society was equal then there would be less need to
What do social democratic say about the voluntary welfare?
New labour were social democratic and also introduced a mixed economy in the hope of extending welfare provision they provided funding for the voluntary sector to provide specialist care
What do new right say about welfare pluralism ?
Although they argue that welfare shouldn’t be provided by the state they do claim that competition between public and private services drives up standards
What do Marist say about welfare pluralism?
Having multiple forms of welfare exploits labour of informal workers and saves the economy billions
What do feminsts say about welfare pluralism?
In addition the mixed economy sectors to provide cheap labour that are usually women
According to new right/neoliberals how effective is the welfare state ? Also the conservative view
BAD-wasteful,inefficient- undermines the will to work
Welfare in an indirect and direct cause of poverty: people don’t have the will to work as they can live on state benefits
Bartholomew blames the welfare state for mass unemployment,illegitimacty,truancy,declining behaviour ,avoidable deaths in the NHS
NR argue that wealth is created by successful business entrepreneurs who provide jobs for others
They are motivated by making money therefore the govn needs to encourage these people by creating a free market-an economic system where a number of companies offer services (market) and the govn doesn’t interfere. Therefore to encourage entrepreneurs,taxation needs to be kept as low as possible, which means reducing the welfare state. Reduce taxation (by reducing the cost/state provision of welfare ) and allow entrepreneurs create wealth for themselves which will then trickle down by job creation
According to NR/. Neoliberals and conservatives what are the poor?
Lazy
What are the NR/ neoliberal strategies to eliminate poverty?
The generosity of the welfare system undermines personal responsibility and self help and peoples willingness to work to support themselves.
Murray and marsland-welfare state has created a dependacy culture,lone parents and a work shy underclass
What is the role of the govn in the welfare state NR/ neoliberal?
To create conditions for successful commerce e.g low taxes
What is the conservative statergy to eliminate poverty?
Charity and minimal benefits
What is the role of the conservative govn in the welfare state ?
Provision of a safety net
How effective does the social democratic govn believe the welfare state is?
Good-to ensure a fair society. Supports the principle of universalism- welfare available to all times of need and should be cradle to grave. They see the welfare state as a way of reducing social inequality through progressive taxation-passing income form the rich to the poor so society becomes more equal. However all benefits form welfare leading to more social cohesion e.g. universal provision of education,pensions and healthcare.
The govn should be responsible for social welfare- including elimination of poverty,and support for groups such as those facing marginalisation. Benefits should be available to all-universal benefits- because selective,means tested benefits which are only payable to those whose income falls below a certain level-which creates a stigma to those claiming them. Means testing also discourages people from taking low paid work catching them in a poverty trap this is shown in unclaimed benefits due to over complexity in claiming, stigma and a lack of confidence
What do the social democrats describe the poor as?
Unfortunate
What is the social demoncrats statergy to eliminate poverty?
An all encompassing welfare state paid for through tax. Poverty would increase if the welfare state was abolished. If there was o welfare state society would be split between a wealthy minority and a mass of poor with no state in society. Means testing creates a poverty trap whereby people are worse off in employment
What is the social democrats role of govn ?
To organise,provide and fund a free welfare state paid
What is wealth?
Property in the form of assets including property,financial assests,physical wealth e.g. household objects and private pension wealth
What are the 4 types of wealth?
Marketable- can be bought or sold
Non marketable wealth- can’t be sold
Productive property-unearned income
Consumption property- wealth used by the owner
What’s income ?
Flow of money which people obtain work,benefits and investments
What are the 6 types of income?
Disposable income- what’s left after taxes
Discretionary income- after taxes/and necessary expenses e.g. mortgage
Earned income
Unearned income- e.g. from properties
The contributory principle- people have paid into schemes e.g. pensions
The social wage- income in kind provided in benefits such as free prescription
What does lister argue about the distribution of wealth and income ?
Argues that wealth us less evenly distributed than income
Wealth is closely linked to social class
Who are the rich- 3main groups?
- Aristocracy- major landowners
2.owners of industry and commerce- e.g. Branson - Entertainment stars- e.g. cowell-300 million
What attempts have been made by the government to distribute wealth ?
1.inheritance tax
2.direct taxes taken form earnings
3.indirect taxes- VAT hit the poorest the hardest
4. Capital gains tax
5. Social welfare benefits
What is evidence to show that the poor pay most of the taxes?
- Tax relief- on business expsnses, school fees, private pensions- all of which the wealthy can already afford
- Tax avoidance schemes- loopholes
3.tax evasion - Failure to claim benefits which ppl are entitled to
What does bartholomew blame the welfare state for ?
Mass unemployment, illegitimacy, truancy, declining behaviour, avoiding death in the NHS
What is the liberal market approach ?
Believes individuals should have the freedom to choose welfare provision from all these competitng in the welfare market and should take responsibility themselves for obtaining it
What are the 4 solutions to poverty?
- The generosity of the welfare state
- The welfare services are better quality when not provided by the state
- Taxation needs to be kept low
- State benefits should be restricted to the very poor
What is craine black magic roundabout ?
Rejects the idea of an underclass as a groups but agrees that the poor can engage in underclass behaviour- this is a consequence of the carousel of unemployment, training schemes and low paid work
Poverty stemmed from the decline of local manufacturing and neglected local authority housing
What was the social democratic model to a response to poverty?
Included universal benefits as minimum income, free health care and education, housing, social services
What was the market liberal approach called under what government and what year?
Conservative gov 79-97
Thatcher called the state- nanny state she believed it reduced ppls self reliance
What significant reforms dud thatcher and major introduced which were inspired by new right and liberal ideas ?
- Council house tentants were allowed to buy
- Taxes were reduced
- Benefits were increasingly means tested
- Charged were introduced for eye tests/ studnets grants were replaced by loans
- Child support agency was set up to demand maintenance from fathers for their child
6.education spending was significantly reduced
Why did the social democrats not agree that the welfare state introduced by thatcher increased equality ?
Social democrats argued that such measures would reduce equality of opportunity put more ppl into the poverty trap and decrease social solidarity and community as the reduction of universal benefits meant not everyone benefitted form investing in the welfare state
Why do Feminsits disagree with the child support agency?
Argued that the child support agency disadvantaged single mothers who had to name their ex partner to be entitled to benefits
When was new labour gov introduced and leader?
Blair
1997-2010
What ideology did Blair follow?
The third way-the party positioned itself between the Neo liberalism of the right and social democracy on the left
What was the late modernity welfare?
Ending of a job for life, increased rate of family breakdown and the growth in female employment
What policies did new labour introduce to help people become self supporting citizens through well paid employment?
- Increased benefit/pension
2.welfare to work polices-required ppl on job seekers allowance to accept offers of work experience education or training or face cuts to benefits
3.increase in spending in health/education
4.national minimum wage
5.tax credits - Increase in childcare services- all 3/4 year old guaranteed 5 half days of nursery
- Creation of sure start centres
8.introduction of the family intervention project
9.increased role for the private sector within NHS - Introduction of academies removing schools from local authority
What was the 2010 conservative/liberal labour policies?
1.moving ppl from welfare to work
2.recognition of the poverty trap-benefits were reduced
3.universal credit
4.new labour academy programme was expanded to include free schools
What were the 9 new right policies?
1.harsher new medical tests to establish whether ppl were capable or not of working
2.benefits cut for the disabled
3.childcare benefits were cut
4.cuts to sure start centres funding
5.level of child benefit was frozen
6.housign benefit was capped- bedroom tax
7.cuts in subsided for new social housing
8.end of EMA/increase in university fees
9. Local commissioning groups had the responsibility to buy health care services from any qualified provider in the state
What are AO3 points for the new right policies introduced?
Means testing of benefits, prescription charges all affected the poor the most
Both basic and higher rates of income tax have been cut and tax has been introduced at point of purchase and impacts on spending not income therefore affecting poor the most
Foucault argues that those claiming benefits were disciplines by growing surveillance- withdrawal of benefit if missed meeting
What did the conservative government today with policies?
-reduced its welfare cap on the total amount a household can receive from 26k to 23k
-child tax credit- families with more than two children who apply wont receive it anymore
-disability benefit changes- ppl assessed as able to return to work in the near future had benefits cut by £30 a week
-cutting housing assistance for young ppl
Why can the inverse care law be used as A03 for the welfare state ?
Those who need is greatest get the least spent on them
What does grand argue as AO3 for welfare state?
Grand argues that the middle class appear to benefit the most out of the welfare system
1.make better use of the health service
2.more spending per person in education
3.are the biggest users of public services such as parks
4.benefit from tax relief on private pensions
What does Westerguaard argue as A03 for the welfare state ?
Argues the welfare state transfers wealth within social classes e.g the wc pay for the unemployed poor
-ethnic groups are marganalised and encounter racism in welfare provision
-Feminsits argue there is also gender inequality in welfare
-some ppl argue that with an aging population the welfare state is unsustainable
What are arguments that the welfare state is succeeding ?
State support has eliminated absolute poverty e.g hosing policies have eradicated slums
Free health care has improved the health of the nation
All have free education
Everyone is guaranteed’cradle to grave’ security
What are arguments that the welfare state isn’t succeeding ?
Relative poverty and social exclusion remain serious social problems
The WS isn’t coping with the demand placed on it e.g. delays in hospital treatment
The MC still benefit the most in eduction
The NR argue that the WS has created a dependency culture where ppl dont take personal responsibility
What is the spheres of work?
The core economy- kinds of unpaid work carried out by families,friends and neighbours out of affection or duty
Paid labour- involves employers,employees and the self employed and it is regulated
The shadow economy- paid but hidden from the state divided into 2:
1.grey economy-legal work but undeclared for tax purposes-cash in hand
2.black economy- illegal work e,g drug dealing
Why do Feminsits argue that there is an unfair division of labour in the home?
Home is a place of leisure for men but work for women
Duncombe and marsden argued that women preform a triple shift-paid work,housework and emotional work
What did oakley find about assembly work and women ?
Found that housewives experienced the same level of alienation as assembly line workers
What is the labour process?
Role people play as they apply their labour to work to produce goods and service it also includes working conditions,skills used and the amount of autonomy they have over their work
Durkheims Marx and Weber were all writing at a time when industrialisation affected the way labour was organised what did these changes include?
Urbanisation-the growth of towns and cities
Mechanisation-the replacement of manual labour by machinery and growth of factories
Specialisation- a new division of labour-narrowing on specific jobs/rationalisation- the growth of doing things by methods based on scientific knowledge
What did Durkheim think about the division of labour ?
Saw it as functionally increasing the skills of the workforce and solidarity the division labour was:
1.a necessary condition for the intellectual and material development of society
2.the means by which social life took place by making feel connections with each other and a sense of social solidarity
What 2 types of social solidarity did Durkheim talk about ?
Mechanical-pre industrial-peasants were connected by sharing similar status- this is the collective conscience there are low levels of specialisation and people lived in smaller communities people shared the same values often delivered through religion
Organic solidarity- industrial societies- individuals have a distinct role-but are interdependent the division of labour becomes more complex as society grows in towns with increased communication-labour is divided as society becomes more complex and individualistic therefore as society grew solidarity was based on peoples resemblance but on their different interdependent roles
What is the functionalist justification for the hierarchal division of labour?
Is that a meritocracy exists- a system that rewards ppl for talents and effort inequality acts as a motivator for the poor -if they want to get on they need to work harder,acquire qualifications and show their talents
Was worried about anomie
Functionalist approach of division of labour according to Marxist and postmodernists AO3?
Marxists and feminists deny the existence of a meritocracy with jobs very definitely going to the bots and rich ones at that
Postmodernists argue that class is dead-status between jobs has become blurred with some high skilled jobs such as teaching being paid less than train driving
What does Marx say about industrialisation ?
Marx argued that industrialisation came a new organisation of labour relations. Argued that society had moved out of a feudal organisation where serfs (who had no land) were effectively owned by the landowners to a new system:capitalism
The RC were those who owned the forces of production such as factories and the WC only had their labour
He was worried about alienation
What did Weber say about industrialisation?
Argued that rational pursuit of profit might become to be seen not as a means to a better life but as an end in itself he also argued that there would be a rise of bureaucracy and bureaucratic organisations this would be inhuman and people could find themselves trapped in an iron cage
What was work like in industrial societies ?
Industrialisation created the separation of home and work, as previously people had worked in their homes
Ppl began selling their labour for wages and were concentrated in factories
Work was factory based,specialised and fragmented-workers lost control of production and the conditions that goods were produced in
Control,discipline,productivity and motivation became major concerns for owners and manager of the means of production
This led to low trust systems of management control
What did Taylor argue was the best way management could reduce power of the workers and ensure maximum productivity was by ?
- The labour process needs to separate from the creativity and autonomy of the individual worker
2.defining every task down to the smallest detail and working out how long each task should take-time and motion study
3.removing as much skill as possible from the workers job
Workers would then become extensions of the machinery they were operating these principles were applied in practice in Henry fords model ford car factories
What are the 4 aspects that Ritzer argues the labour process in fast food chains like McDonald’s ?
1.efficiency- every aspect of the process is streamlined- in MDs everyone has a specific job humans work like the machine around them
2.calculability-each item is quantified and processed in the same way
3.predictability- the products,the way staff treat and talk to customers are stable and duplicated even the environment
4.control-management control the labour process through technology,ideology and direct supervision
What does piore say about the dual labour market?
Many females and ethnic minorities are confined to the secondary labour marker characterised by low wages and low skills
This secondary labour market cuts across manual white collar and service sector jobs in the modern labour market
Piore argued this led to labour market segmentation- the threat of being replaced by machines undermines the power of workers and trade unions attempts to improve pay and conditions
What does braverman say about deskilling- Marxists?
The method of control above reflects the conflict between the RC and WC managers don’t trust workers to work efficiently so managers seek to exercise total control he argues that this has led to the deskilling and degradation of work jobs are subdivided and subdivided until all creativity is lost
What is deskilling aimed at?
Aimed at the control of the workforce- reducing their bargaining power,increasing production, and raising profits as unskilled workers are cheaper than skilled ones
What did braverman argue about deskilling?
Braverman argued that deskilling was impacting both blue collar and white collar workers writing in the 70s braverman argued that at least 70% of workers have become proletarianised
What can capitalism only sustain- bravermen?
Capitalism can only sustain long term profits by continued deskilling of the work force- this weakens the strength of the WC seen in the decline of union memberships this isn’t confined to lower skilled positions
What did Carey find in his study?
Carey studied social workers and found they were deskilled and proletarianised
What are A03 points for the deskilling thesis ?
-in the 19th century most jobs were unskilled so their has been no deskilling relatively to then
-technology hasn’t simply removed skills it has also created them- computer programming
-the fordist model is old fashioned and disappearing- workers are becoming multi skilled and flexible
-upskilling- there has been a decline of unskilled work but an increase in skilled work- more qualifications are required
According to Foucault what is disciplinary power?
There has been an increase in surveillance such as CCTV, checking emails ,monitoring telephone conversations
Turns into self surveillance whereby employees monitor their own behaviour because they don’t know whether they are under surveillance or not (the panoptican)
What does grant suggest about surveillance and control?
Suggests that too much control by employers may alienate employees who resent the lack of trust shown and may then seek to do the minimum required
What does zuboff say about surveillance and control?
Workers are increasingly subject to forms of surveillance- “mechanism of objecitificaiton’- workers are under an official gaze- work may be CCTV surveillance but also constantly evaluated through review and development
Zuboff notes how cybernetic identities emerge from the gaze of the employer shapes our career and promotion prospects
When roles involve low skills employers look for aesthetic labour- workers are chosen as they look right attractive individuals boost a company’s image
What are the problems found in high levels of control found in fordist production methods?
1.high abstenteeism and conflict
2.insufficient training
3.lack of motivation
4.alienation- workers lose control over what they produce therefore have no job satisfaction
The opposite of job satisfaction is intrinsic attitude
What did Marx argue about alienation ?
Argued that because workers had no control over what they produced nor may have been able to afford it they suffered from alienation
What was blauners study on alienation ?
He argued alienation had 4 aspects:
-powerlessness-no control over decisions
-meaningless-only making up one small part of a finished product
-isolation-workers felt like cogs with little interaction with fellow workers
-self estrangement- feels that their potential isn’t being reached with little opportunity for creativity
What does blauner suggest that alienation levels were determined by ?
Determined by the amount of technology used-technological determinism
E.g in craft production where things were made by hand workers had high levels of satisfaction however in mechanised conditions such as textile factories workers showed higher levels of alientaitmn
What is automation ?
Where the more repetitive jobs has been overtaken by machines e..g modern car manufacture workers control the machines and have some autonomy they aren’t tied to a place and can mix with other they therefore have low levels of alienation and hihg job satisfaction
How do Marxists criticise blauner ?
Argue he places too much emphasis on technology as a cause of alienation- when in fact its a result of the private ownership of the means of production by the ruling class
Why is it deterministic to only talk about how technology causes alienation?
Other factors may impact levels of job satisfaction and alienation for example women in low paid part time work might feel satisfied as it gets them out of the house so too could working conditions,social contact with workers, levels of opportunity, levels of creativity involved in work
What does Nichols argue as ao3 for reasons for alienation?
Automated industries are also alienating- Nichols looked at automated chemical plants- and found lots of workers found their jobs stressful and boring
What did Gallie find about shift work?
Found the shift work required to keep automated processes running were harmful to workers instead gallie argued that management styles and whether workers were involved in decision making was more important on degree of job satisfaction and alienation
What is blauners work?
Out dated- the most extreme form of alienation is based on early model fordist assembly lines this has changed to increase computerisation and post fordist production
What did goldthorpe and Lockwood find in their study of Vauxhall car workers in Luton?
They found that they had an instrumental attitude to their work they were interested in gaining wages to spend with their families therefore they were indifferent towards their work rather than alienated this is in line with post modernists such as Bauman who argues that we are living in a consumer society where what we buy is more important for our identity than our work
What are responses to alienation ?
1.distrust for employers
2.production of faulty goods
3.taking unofficial breaks
4.going off sick
5.conflict with management-strikes,work to rule
What strategies have employers adopted to minimise alienation ?
-teamwork
-job rotation
-flexitime
-profit sharing schemes
What 4 types of strategy for controlling the workforce does Abercrombie identify?
1.direct control- supervision of mangers- rarely found in big business
2.technical control-each worker is given low skill tasks to complete and needs to perform as a piece of industrial machinery-this was successfully achieved through scientific management (Taylorism,fordism)
3.bureaucratic control-controlled by hierarchy where each worker has an immediate superior and formal rules
4.responsible authority- workers are given a degree of discretion the workforce is self policing
Who developed the human relations theory and control of the labour process and what was it?
Mayo in the 1920s found that workers were more effectively controlled and productive if they felt valued and less supervised by management
The Hawthorne experiment measured working conditions and found the biggest factor which increased productivity was the interest taken by the researcher
Mayo concluded that if managers showed more care to the social needs of their workers and work was more enjoyable productivity would rise
What are the 4 methods that work needed to be made more rewarding through?
1.job enrichment- giving workers independence and responsibility for decision making in their work rather than being closely directed by managers
2.job rotation-giving workers variety
3.job enlargement- include a wide range of tasks and skills within a job
4.teamwork-complete a project rather than doing one boring task
What new form of control does the human relations model try to form?
Attempts to overcome worker resistance in the labour process whilst retaining management power and control
Why is Friedman (Marxists) critical of the deskilling thesis ?
Argues that if workers are given a limited amount of control over their work the opportunity to use their initiative and organise their own work routines this is beneficial to the company as they will identify with the company and require less control
What do post fordism argue?
They argue that today customers want better quality, more specialised goods so firms are now using computer technology to make production more flexible
What does piore call the combination of tech and skilled workers?
Flexible specialisation
What are 3 main features of flexible specialisation?
1.flexible technology-allows the same machines to perform a range of tasks
2.flexible skills- workers need to be highly skilled to adapt to new and more sophisticated tech
3.changing organisation and management:
A)workers are given more responsible autonomy
B)more teamwork
C)more flexible work hours
What is a good example of a post fordist production?
Microsoft- its open 24h a day, employees choose their working hours, they work in teams on products, they aren’t strictly controlled by managers but by responsibility to their other team members
What’s the difference between fordism and post fordism in tech,type of production,products,work tasks, worker involvement ?
Fordism: fixed machinery,mass,cheap,standardised products,fragmented,repetitive,no control by workers managers control all
Post fordism: computer controlled,specialised,changing with customer tastes,specialised,high quality products, deskilling, multi tasking and flexible, workers are given responsibility with some control over decision making
How does pollert criticise post fordism?
-mass production has far from disappeared e..g McDonald’s
-flexibility may only be available in large firms
-skills levels of jobs haven’t increased
-employers may not value their workforce-workers now face the likelihood of periods of redundancy and retraining
-responsible autonomy and group prodcution can lead to increased peer pressure in order to produce more
What did wood study and how did it criticise post fordism?
Studied 2 British steel rolling mills- he rejected the reskilling thesis and argues that many of the workers were already highly skilled before the introduction of technology
What evidence is there for upskilling?
-professional,menegerial and technical jobs haven’t increased increased
-wages for these professionals have increased compared to unskilled workers
-there has been an increase in qualifications for example nurses are uni educated and take on tasks restricted to doctors
-education and training has become increasingly focused on increasing the supply of technical and scientifically trained individuals in employment
-
How can ritzer be used as ao3 for evidence of upskilling?
Uses the term mcdonalidisation- present in a lot of occupations for example nursing and teaching workers are faced with meeting standardised quality measures achieved by breaking down work based tasks to find the most efficient way to complete it
How can bryman be used as ao3 for evidence for upskilling ?
Talks about disneynitification where there are trend associated with Disney theme parks:
-dedifferentation of consumption- multiple consumption opportunites in a specific location merchandising selling the brand everywhere emotional labour cheerful workers with fixed smiles
What is the impact of globalisation?
It has led to increasing internationalisation of the production,distribution and management of goods
This has been facilitated by Neo liberal policies such as the growth of multinationals and foreign direct investment where companies take over companies owned in another e.g. nestle took over rowntree
Capitalism has become the dominant form of economic organisation world wide e.g. kfc owned by American company
What does Frobel say about globalisation?
New international division of labour- global trend for global outsourcing and production transnational corporations seek to locate production where labour costs are cheapest despite this competition the uk has very low rates of unemployment but these jobs have changed in nature- they are often part time and on zero hour contracts this could be seen as failing employment security in Europe e
What does Lansley argue about globalisation and the labour market ?
Argued that there has been a rise in the number of well paid and professional jobs and a decline in the number of middle paid and skilled jobs and a rise in the number of routine low paid service jobs
According to Gini what are the ways work is significant in peoples life’s?
- Takes up most of a persons time
2.its for most non optional-ppl must earn money to survive
3.its the biggest commitment that we make
4.its the way we achieve status and identity in society
5.its the single most important factor affecting a persons social class
6.it develops us socially
7.its a source of our self esteem
8.it has a significant impact on leisure activities and consumer goods
What does Parker suggest the 3 ways ppls work is organised ?
Opposition-physically hard,mining,opposition to work,leisure is a central interest and a way of escapism’s from work
Neutrality- routine work,supermarket staff,leisure for relaxation
Extension-high levels of participation,professionalise.g. Doctors,teachers, blurring between work and leisure
What are ao3 of Parker?
Ignores the fact that other factors affect leosire activities e.g income
Feminsts argue that Parker work only looks at men women leisure activities maybe curtailed by domestic work and expectations
What does Marx argue about work?
Argued that work is central to our existence it separates us from other animals it should be creative activity that creates the objective world of social institutions
However in a capitalist society workers don’t own the products of their labour and therefore work alienated them
what did Marx consider the 4 aspects of alienated labour?
1.alienation from the product- workers work for a wage
2.alienation from productive activity
3.alienation from species-workers should be fulfilling but it isn’t
4.alienation from fellow workers
What are blauners existence of industrial production in 4 ways?
1.powerlessness-no control over work
2.meaningless-the purpose of their work is unclear
3.isolation-they don’t feel part of a shared community
4.self estrangement- work doesn’t offer them self expression
How does wright criticise work?
Looked at contradictory class locations where workers enjoyed a certain amount of autonomy over their work and therefore their jobs satisfaction increased e.g. managers,self employed
What does grint argue about alienation as ao3 of work?
Argued that alienation is linked to types of leadership if leadership is authoritarian and dominant ppl will feel alienated however this will be reduced where workers are lisetened to and feel empowered and can challenge decisions freely
What are ao3 points of work?
-work is of declining significance in peoples lives?
-the self employed may not be as affected by this sense of aleination as they have some autonomy
What does bauman argue about work?
Argues that work is a source of identity is declining as we look towards what we consume as a primary indicator of who we are
What does beck argue about the society we live in?
Beck argues that we live in a risk society where jobs maybe uninvolving,short lived and insecure people’s lives have become much more individualised and they stand alone in an insecure world therefore ppl no longer have attachment to their work so work has lost its status as a source of social identity
What is ao3 of beck the society we live in?
We still need income to buy the aspects of our identity e.g phones and clothes
What did dahrendorf argue about worklessness?
Argued that Europe as a response to globalisation that there would be an increase in permanent full time employment and increase in part time seasonal work ther people involved would be underemployed
What are 2 ways unemployment statistics are presented?
1.claimant count- those in receipt of Jobseeker’s Allowance and seeking work
However it ignores under 18s,those out of work not claiming it,those whose partner is working
2. The ILO count- those w out a job seeking work for a month and are about to start in the next two weeks
Some claim that this overestimates unemployment
Which groups are most likely to be unemployed and why?
Gender-higher for men due to concentration in manufacturing industries
Age-younger ppl as they lack training and experience
Minority ethnic groups- Pakistanis have the highest rate of unemployment
Disabled
Locality- more unemployment in the north
What are the effects of unemployment for the individuals?
1.loss of identity,status and self esteem
2.poverty mounting debts and hardship
3.social isolation and exclusion
4.increase in physical and mental health problems
5.increase family stress
What did Loretto say about loss of identity and unemployment?
Looked at older workers,unemployment and disability and found loss of a job led to a distrust ion in personal lives
What does dorling say about increase physical and mental problems caused by unemployment ?
Found that people in secure employment recovered more quickly from illness
What effects does unemployment have on the society?
1.more discipline at work
2.more alienation and dissatisfaction at work
3.an increase in social division
4.racism and scapegoating
5.more family breakdown
What do Fagin and little say about increased family stress and unemployment?
Found in their research of 22 families that unemployment impacted negatively on spouses and children as well as fathers out of work children experienced more health and behavioural problems
What are the 6 causes of unemployment ?
1.globalisation
2.the development of new technology
3.the decline of manufacturing industries
4.the decline of heavy industries
5.increae in the working population
6.the growing flexibility and cuasualization of work
What does bauman argue about retirement?
The repressed consumers- if your poor you duffer from boredom and feel that work is still necessary for an income
Seduced consumers- if your wealthy you can be released from the stress of work
What do hockey and James argue about retirement?
Argue that it can lead to infantilisation where older people are treated like children and powerless as their earning power from work has declined
What do cumming and Henry say about retirement?
Disengagement theory- found that elderly people begin to disengage with previous social roles as they realise they will die in the near future
What are the effects of globalisation on work?
1.rationalisation and deskilling- ritzer looked at the increase of rationalisation through his concept of mcdonalisation
Leidner conducted a study of McDonald’s and found they use mystery shoppers to find out if staff self presentation was adequate
2.increase of none standard jobs of lower quality
3.more opportunities and potential unemployment e.g. call centres were moved to India workers work nights to fit in to time zones and are given English names
What does grattton argue about the effects of globalisation on work?
It has hollowed out the middle ground jobs she says that there will always be demand for high skills high wage workers and low skilled such as waitresses it is the middle skilled such as managers that are vulnerable as work can be outsourced to a country with lower wages and be replaced by tech
What does gratton say about virtual education?
E.g. khan academy,open Yale
These courses can be accessed anywhere in the world these highly educated ppl will be able to work on global online tasks universities will no longer be required
What does castells argue about the effects of globalisation on work?
Power of owners is strengthened
Castell argues that capital is global but work is local whereas IT can organise info workers are localised and therefore weaker making it difficult to protect their pay and working conditions as business may threatened to move their work to a cheaper country
What does klein say about developing two tier workforces?
Looked at large retailers such as Nike who present an image off their hoods they are selling lifestyles and identities in the meantime their products have been made in countries like china or Mexico where labour costs are low
They’re developing a two tier workforce a core full time set of employers workers who enjoy high salaries and secure employment and a larger set of periphery workers who are part time and employed by agencies
What does standing refer to as the low paid workforce and what is that?
Precariat they experience precarious employment, minimal rights,coercive management and unsocial hours
However this group could become increasingly class conscious and question the Neo liberal ideas that created these conditions-precariatisation
What do castles and kosack say about immigration?
See immigrants as a disadvantages group- they function as a reserve army of labour employed when needed and laid off when not
What are core and periphery workers?
Core are well paid well qualified enjoying permanent cotnrecys
Periphery are less trained with lower pay and job security short term zero hour contracts
What do swaim and Torres say about the impact of globalisation on work?
Found that globalisation was thought to be causing job losses and caused anxiety among workers due to a fear of a companies relocation however other factors such a as new tech also caused job losses but these caused less anxiety in workers
