Beliefs in Society Flashcards
What is the functionalists perspective on religion ?
There’s a number of functions that religion performs for both society and the individual: social intergration, identity, collective conscious, control, explains suffering and offer a sense of national identity
What is durkheims collective conscience theory on religion?
Looked at aborigines and totemism, each clan had its own sacred totem,
Identified that people divide the world into the sacred and profane,
He believed that religion was in fact the worship of society,
Main role of religion is to reinforce shared norms and values creating a collective conscience and strengthens social solidarity.
What are criticisms of Durkheim collective conscience?
Hamilton argues that religious beliefs can be at odds with societal ones. Religion caused wars not harmony between societies
Religion belief may be expressed individually so it doesn’t fulfil its role as a collective force
Postmodernists argue that his ideas can’t be applied to current society as diversity replaces collective conscience
What are some support points for durkheims collective conscience theory on belief?
Paden argues that durkheims work is still important in showing us that religion produces social solidarity e.g. wailing wall is symbolically important for all Jews
Define fundamentalism
Appeal to tradition they seek return to the basics of their faith
Define secularisation
Means the decrease in power that religion has in society
What are the 4 types of religion and what do they mean?
-theistic belief (a belief in a higher power)
-new age movements (spiritual rather than religious belief focus on self development )
-animism (a belief in spirits and ghosts that can positively or negatively impact the world)
-totemist (where a community creates a symbol that represents them as a group)
What are the 5 features of religion ?
1.beleif in sacred beings
2.sacred and profane objects
3.ritual acts
4.moral code
5.prayer and other forms of communication with higher beings
What is the substantive definition of religion?
Aim it identity the core characteristics shared by major religions and are exclusive in nature
What is an evaluation of substantive definition of religion
Ethnocentric as it only focuses on western religions
What is the functional definition of religion ?
Looks at what a religion does for the society
What is an evaluation of the functional definition of religion ?
Too inclusive as any belief system could be considered a religion if it performs similar functions like football
What is the constructionist definition of religion?
Mainly interested in how definitions of religion are constructed, challenged and fought over
What is an evaluation of constructionists definition of religion?
Impossible to generalise about the nature of religion as people have widely differing views
What is Malinowski functionalists view on religion?
He doesn’t see religion as the worship of society itself but does agree it promotes social solidarity
Religion was a crucial explanation for life crises/ help through risk and times of need
E.g. the trobriand islanders had rituals surrounding fishing in the sea where its dangerous whereas none for where it was safe
What is a criticism of Malinowski theory on religion?
Overestimated the use of rituals to create social solidarity
E.g. tambiah looked at the rituals surrounding yams which were used as exchange for a wife these rituals were for prestige rather than solidarity
What is parsons functionalists view on religion?
Religion provides a mechanism of adjustment and comfort e.g emotional adjustment if the face of a crisis when a loved one died
It creates and legitimates society’s central values creating value consensus and its a primary source of meaning
Who criticises parsons theory on religion ?
Glock and stark argue that religion can cause major conflict e.g. Northern Ireland
What is Bellah neo functionalists view on religion ?
Civil religion promotes solidarity and collective identity by blending faith and patriotism e.g. American children pledge allegiance to god and the flag
What is a criticism of bellah view on religion ?
Are civil religions really religions if there is no belief in the supernatural
What is stark and brain bridge neo functionalists theory on religion acts as a compensator?
They argue people are naturally religious
A beleif in god provides a means for individuals to make sense of events as well as answering fundamental questions like why are we here
Religion acts as a compensator a beleif that acting in a certain way will eventually be rewarded
Religion acts as a stabiliser acting as a conservative force
What are 3 criticisms of stark and bainbridge theory on religion?
Beckford- argue that their theory is unsociological as it assumes people are naturally religious
Bruce-disagrees with the claim that religion is about personal choice
Evidence that where there is a religious choice it has also declined
What is Karl Marx Marxists theory on religion?
Religion does 3 things
1. Legitimises inequality
2. Disguises the true nature of exploitation
3. Keeps the wc passive and resigned to their fate
It is an opiate- a drug that distorts reality and helps individuals deal with pain
Religion is a form of alienation, creates false class conscious and a mechanism of social control
E..g Hindu system no movement between castes
What are 4 evaluations of Karl Marx theory ?
Religion can only perform the role they belief it can if it has any power, fail to examine secularisation
Religion can act as an agent of social change e.g. in Iran there was an Islamic revolution to overthrow the monarchy
Religion didn’t die out in communist Russia -miller
Ignores the positive side of religion so disagrees with functionalists
What is Althusser Marxists theory on religion?
Part of the ideological state apparatus- passed on ideas that capitalism is god given
What is a criticism of Althusser? Feminsts disagree why
Feminsts argue that religion acts to continue male, particarchal power not ruining class power
What examples does hook give to back up Marxists theory?
Popes take a conservative view on issues such as abortion,homosexuality these attitudes are causing problems in the third world he also suggests that the considerable wealth of the church could be used more effectively to fight poverty
What is gramsci Neo Marxism theory on religion?
Religion could be used by the wc to free themselves from capitalists opression workers have a dual consciousness and can see the source and nature of their opression they will create relgiion of their own to combat and criticise this .
What is engles Neo Marxists thoery on religion?
Religion didn’t always act as a conservative force supporting the interest of the roiling class religion usually started off amongst the oppressed groups in society as a way of coping
What is Maduro Neo Marxists theory of religion?
Religion has relative autonomy from the roiling class. Catholic priests began to speak up for the poor- liberation theology -power and land should be redistributed from the rich to the poor therefore it acts as a revolutionary force rather than an opium
What is holm feminsts theory on religion?
In the public sphere of religion where important positions are held men dominate. But in private spheres the socialisation of children into a relgiion within families women are dominant e.g. women aren’t allowed into the Hindu temple if they’re menstruating as it is seen as polluting
What is Armstrong feminsts theory on religion?
Relgiion hasn’t always been patriarchal there was a great mother goddess but with the advent of monotheistic religion(one god) women were out onto the sidelines/marginalised
What is de beauvior radical feminsts view on religion?
Religion is an instrument of male domination religion gives women a form of false consciousness which keeps them in their place women are deceived into thinking they are equal to men just as long as they are prepared to wait for heaven- a compensator
Why does el saadawi disagree with debeauvior?
Practises such as female circumcision aren’t the result of Islam itself but of misinterpretations of the Quran by men which distort the true beliefs and are used to justify the exploitation of women
What is Watson feminist theory on relgiion and what does she believe religion isn’t always oppressive?
Watson argues that religion can be misinterpreted as being patriarchal the veiling of women in Islam is not a sign of oppression but a way of protecting women against the male gaze in patriarchal societies where women can be the victims of sexual harassment however she only interviewed 3 women
What is Rinaldo feminsts theory on religion?
Examined the rise in women involved in piety movements in Brazil- Pentecostalism- strict, fundamentalists groups she found that these patriarchal movements gave women a sense of value in their role of housewife and gave them a sense of community and moral certainty in a rapidly changing society.
What is woodhead feminsts theory of religion?
Argues that western feminists offer an ethnocentric view of religion overall some Muslim women claim that wearing the hijab is liberating freeing them of their objecfiticiation of men
What is Berger and luckmann interpretivists theory on relgiion ?
Relgiion provides a plausibility structure for the universe of meaning- a set of ideas and values about the meaning of life which helps people make sense of the world around them
Religion is a sacred canopy protecting people from uncertainties therefore contributing to the maintenance of social stability
But Berger believes this sacred canopy has been lost
What are two criticisms of interpretivist theory on relgiion?
- they tend to see only the positive uniting function of religio- they ignore how religion could be divisive
-there are societies that have no widespread single religion which suggests that relgiion isn’t required to legitimate society
What is Weber social action theory on relgiion ?
Weber believes it is necessary to examine the meanings people give to events and ideas
Relgiion provides theodicy - ideas about peoples positions and events that happen to them
Looked at Calvinism with its theodicy of strictness and work ethic led to the development of capitalism- religion causes change
What are 3 criticisms of Weber?
- some countries with large Calvinist populations such as Norway didn’t industrialise
-Marxists are critical as kautsky argues capitalism predates Calvinism
=was it other factors such as slave trade that led to the development of capitalism?
What is Norris and inglehart existential security theory?
Argue that in rich societies where people feel secure religion has lost its importance and therefore the power to change society whereas in poorer countries where people face life threatening events relgiion is more important
What are criticisms of existential security theory?
-they don’t look at peoples own definition if exsitiential security
-they only see religion as a negative response to deprivation and ignore the positive
Nanda argues that religious belief in developing countries hasn’t increased just among the poor
What is Nandas theory on religion?
Examines the role of Hinduism in modern India and has found that the religion has increased in popularity since modernisation especially amongst the middle class therefore nanda rejects the idea that poverty or existential insecurity is causing this increase or that it is a defence in response to the modernity of the west
Being religious allows the newly wealthy middle class to feel less guiklty about their wealth.
What is Giddens high modernity theory on religion and globalisation?
There is an increase in reflexitvity-monitoring of life in order to improve it e.g wanting to become like a celebrity
There is no separation between time and space
Disembedding where people are concerned with issues not happening in the country e.g. chernobyl
Expert systems- people rely on the fact that they have a title ‘expert’
Fundamentalism- giddens argues that people might turn to fundamentalism in the quest for certainty in an uncertain world
What are 2 evalutaitons of giddens high modernity theory?
Beckford argues that its a good theory as it explain the rise of different relgiigons
But its contradictory that religion should increase in a society based on rational thought
What is Byers theory of particularism vs universalism on globalisation of religion?
Particularism-emphasis on the distinctive characteristics of a particular group
Unvieralism- emphasis on similarities between people or societies
What happens when particularism meets individualism? :
-religion becomes a personal thing(privatisation)
-religion can be used to reassert identity (relativised)
-religion try to find common ground between each other (liberalisation)
What is Samuel Huntington thoery on religious globalisation?
Clash of civilisations- contact with other societies can use relgiion to focus on differences rather than sinmilarities
Loss of rational identity due to political, economic changes
Why does Armstrong disagree with Huntingtons theory?
Argues that religion is being used politically as a tool therefore religion doesn’t cause conflict but politics do.
What is lyotard postmodernist theory on religion ?
Argues that there have been a loss of confidence in metanarratives. Newer religions have become more individualistic
What is davie postmodernist theory on religion?
Religion is taking a more form belief without belonging. Religion is there for times of danger but is mostly experienced second hand she calls this vicarious religion but religion is still important
What is hervieu-leger postmodernists theory on religion?
Believes there have been cultural amnesia of religion where children haven’t been socialised into religious doctrine instead individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition- people are spiritual shoppers
What is Lyon post modernist theory on relgiion ?
Religion has relocated to the sphere of consumption we can pick elements of different faiths to suit our individual needs. Religion is no longer found in churches but in entertainment arenas e.g. Disneyland due to dedifferentiation- the distinction between different features of social life become less clear cut
Who criticises post modernists view on evidence of strong religious faith ?
Bruce argues that the above is evidence of secularisation not evidence of strong religious faith. This consumer led religion is weak it has little effect on people’s lives
What is baumans post modernist theory on religion?
Argues that religious revivals result from problems faced by individuals but goes onto argue that postmodernity exists in peoples minds this is the belief that nobody has authority over them and that life is a big shopping experience where people choose what they wish to consume one at a time
How does Beckford criticise baumans thoery ?
It is contradictory for people to reject authority but then seek guidance in religious authority Bauman has failed to examine the continuing importance of relgiion throughout history there has been little change according to Beckford
What does Huntington say as a contemporary theory of religion?
Sources of identity that aren’t religious or based on civilisation have declined as a consequence religion has filled a gap there has been unsecularisation the present war in Syria’s has attracted Muslim fighters from all over the world to support the rebels against a western president Assad therefore most of the conflict in the world is due to religion not politics
What are the 3 criticism of Huntington theory?
Jackson- argues he’s stereotyping the east as fanatical
Casanova- argues that he ignores religious divisions within civilisations for example the sunni and Shi’a Muslims
Armstrong- argues that it is the economic policy that is the problem not religion
What does Armstrong say about the west and Muslim world?
There is nothing incompatible about the west and the Muslim world she blames political and economic factors behind the increased tensions. The rise of fundamentalism groups has been created by the faliure of modernisation
What does Bruce argue about religion and conflict?
Argues that because religion has become a private affair rather than a public one religion creates little conflict however sometimes religion can cause conflict if the public/private sphere is stepped over e.g. evolution being taught in USA schools has led to conflict with religious groups e.g. Turkish Muslims who have settled fully into German life
What does Durkheim argue about religion prevents change/ conservative force?
Argued that religion had a social control mechanism- it created a collective conscience
What does parsons say about religion prevents change/ conservative force?
Religion reinforces social solidarity and restricts both deviance and social change because the existing social and moral order is regarded as sacred
What does bellah say about religion prevents change/ conservative force?
Argues that religion acts as a conservative force in a modern multicultural society as it binds people together. Civil religion promotes solidarity by blending faith and patriotism e..g American children pledge allegiance to god and the flag
What does stark and bainbridge say about religion prevents change/ conservative force?
See religion as meeting the needs of individuals when their sense of social order is distrupted by economic hardship, loneliness, grief. Religion acts as a compensator and is acting as a compensator and contributing to the maintenance of stability and acting as a conservative force
What does Marx say about religion being a conservative force?
Religion is like an opiate and a product of alienation- loss of control means that people don’t try to change society
What hook argue about religion being a conservative force?
Argued that popes take a conservative view on issues such as abolition, contraception and homosexuality. These attitudes are causing problems in the third world he also suggests that the considerable wealth of the church could be used more effectively to help fight poverty
What does Gary Marx say about religion being a conservative force?
Studied the role of religion amongst black Americans in the 60s he found the greater the religious involvement the less the militancy. However there was some difference between the type of religion followed if the persons religious beliefs were other worldly stressing the powerlessness of humans and the promise of salvation then there was little motivation to change society
What does el saadawi say about religion as a conservative force?
Practices such as female circumcision aren’t the result of Islam itself but of misinterpretations of the Quran by men which distort the true beliefs and are used to justify the continued exploitation of women
What does de beauvior say about religion as a conservative force?
Religion is an instrument of male domination- religion gives women a form of false consciousness which keeps them in their place. Women are decieved women thinking they are equal to men just as long as they are prepared to wait for heaven
What does holm argue and contradict religion as a conservative force?
Uses the example of female rabbis/ ordination of female bishops in the Church of England
What does Berger and luckmann say about religion as a conservative force?
Religion provides a plausibility structure from the universe of meaning- set of ideas and values about the meaning of life, which helps people make sense of the word around them
Religion is a sacred canopy stretching over society providing a shield that protects people from uncertainties therefore contributing to the maintence of social stability
What does giddens argue to contradict religion as a conservative force?
Fundamentalists- so argues it won’t causes chagne
What lyotard say about religion wont cause change?
Argues that there has been a loss of confidence in metanarratives
What does davie argue about religion lacks the power to cause change?
Religion is taking a more private form- belief without belonging religion is there for rites of passage/time of danger but is mostly experienced second hand- she calls this vicarious relgiion therefore it may not have the power to cause change
What does Lyon say about religion not causing change ?
Religion has become detached from institutions such as the church and competes with other things in the media for attention. E.g Easter Day crusade was held not in a church but in Disneyland
What does Nelson say about religion as a cause of change?
E.g Northern Ireland, Palestine, martin Luther king more recent examples 9/11, invasion of Afghanistan, Iraq
What does Weber say about religion as a cause of change?
Religious ideas can cause economic change. He argues that religion provides theodicy-ideas about people’s positions and events that happen to them, this can be used to promote or prevent change e.g. the theodicy of disprivilege means that those who experience hardship will be rewarded in the future
What does Weber research about Calvinism?
Argues Calvinism which developed in 17 th century Western Europe produced a set of ideas and values making up the Protestant ethic:
1. Believed in predestination- the elect- therefore evidence of this was by good work
2. The Protestant ethic promoted values such as thrift, trade and profit and reinvestment rather than spending on luxuries
Weber argued that the spirit of capitalism involves a determination to make money-this led to the spirit of Calvinism because his followers worked hard and spent little money how
What are the 3 criticism of Weber Calvinism?
-some countries with large Calvinist populations such as Norway didn’t industrialise
-capitalism came before Calvinism
-was it other factors such as the slave trade and colonialism that led to the development of capitalism
What does gramsci say about religion as a cause of change?
Although gramsci did argue that religion was part of ruiling class hegemony he did not believe that the church supporting the ruiling class was inevitable. He argued that religious beliefs could challenge the ruiling class as the church wasn’t directly under ruiling class control- it had relative autonomy religion could be used by the wc to free themselves from capitalist opression
What does engles say about relgiion as a cause for change?
Used the example of early Christmas in the Roman era as an example of how religion can cause change
What do fundamentalists believe about relgiion as both?
Fundamentalism can cause social change but remains a conservative force as it wants to revert back to traditional values and practices e.g. Islamic fundamentalist group government in Iran overthrew the monarchy who they believed to be aligned with the west
What does McGuire say about in the right circumstances religion may contribute to change?
Argues that there are 4 interrelated factors which may have an effect on the power of relgiion to cause change
-the extent of religious belief- strong moral codes may lead to change( e.g. the banning of gay civil partnerships in california)
-the significance of religion in a society’s culture-Catholicism in Ireland may be used to justify change
-the extent of the social involvement of religion e.g. in Iran religion and the state are linked
-the degree of central authority in religious organisations. The pope can prevent/ cause change as the over riding authority
What is religion as a closed beleif system ?
Religion is often seen as a closed system or beleif because they often suggest that they know the truth about the world and don’t tolerate those that criticise that truth they can be very conservative in their beliefs and not with to change
What is religion as an open beleif system? What does herberg say?
Religion can be seen as an open system of beleif when it is open to change. Herberg suggests that some religions are open to change and have diluted their beliefs systems in order to maintain relevance in modern society. He refers to this process as internal secularisation and uses the acceptance of female bishops into the church of englands as an example
What does Kuhn day science as a closed belief?
Science is a closed belied system as it runs of paradigms which shape the way that the discipline is defined and understood as well as how research is carried out as this is accepted by the majority it is very hard to change
What does popper say about science as an open beleif system ?
Popper believes that science is an open system because it is open to challenge and it is built upon the idea of falsification. If a theory is proven wrong is it replaced and the knowledge within the discipline grows
What is a polanyi self sustaining beliefs?
In order to protect themselves from challenge closed systems such as religion have 3 main tendencies :
1.denial of legitimacy- complete rejection of the claims of rivals to convince followers that they alone hold the truth
2.subsidiary explanations-get out clauses to explain away criticisms or to deflect the argument
3.circularity- each idea within the system is explained in terms of another idea within the system
What is a polanyi self sustaining beliefs?
In order to protect themselves from challenge closed systems such as religion have 3 main tendencies :
1.denial of legitimacy- complete rejection of the claims of rivals to convince followers that they alone hold the truth
2.subsidiary explanations-get out clauses to explain away criticisms or to deflect the argument
3.circularity- each idea within the system is explained in terms of another idea within the system
What is the case study: Azande and witchcraft
Evan’s-Pritchard
Studied the Azande tribe and shows how their beleif system reflects the characteristics of a closed system their belief in witch craft causing misfortune and the proof coming from a benge potion given to chickens seems irrational to outsiders but is indoctrinated into the tribe and no one questions it
What is an ideology?
A beleif system is the set of stories and realities about the world that a person believes to be true. It includes religious beleifs,moral and what one defines as right or wrong. Ideologies refer to the political,social and economic ideas that help to define a particular group of people
What do Marxists gramsci, Marx,Althusser say about ideology?
All ideologies including science and religion are a tool of the ruiling class to maintain power and reproduce inequality. They justify the principals of capitalism and prevent the proletariat revolution. Marxists argue that major scientific discoveries are motivated by generating mass profits and only fuels capitalism further.
What do postmodernists say about ideology?
There are multiple ideologies within society and they reflect the values and world views of the different social groups within that society. There is no dominate ideology but a sharing of power amongst them.
This is a contradiction as the pluralism itself is declaring dominance. It also ignores the unequal distribution of power within society
What does Oakley, feminsts say about ideology ?
Believe that ideologies such as science and religion have promoted the patriarchy for generations. For example by blocking women from positions of power or tainting them as weak or impure. Oakley argues that a good example of science acting as an ideology in bowlbys study of maternal deprivation she suggests that his idea that children’s development is damaged by working mothers has been used to justify gender inequality in the work place and reinforced the partiatchal idea of women staying at home and men as the breadwinner
What does mannheim say about ideologies?
Claims that all world views are ideologies and are the product of the theologians and intellectuals that cannot relate to the everyday so their idea reflect their own personal interests
He identified two types of world views
1. Ideological thought- justifies tradition and the maintenance of society thus resisting change. This is because those who control the ideology are benefiting from the status quo
2.utopian thought- attempts to promote social change because the current state of the world doesnt benefit those who construct utopian beleif systems
He argues that we need to detach ourselves from these world views and create an objective world view that all can relate to these ideas would be created by a free floating intelligentsia
What are the 3 core principals of science ?
1.science is the pursuit of facts
2.it is objective
3. Studies the impact of cause and effect based on reliable data
What are paradigms?
Shape the how the discipline is defined and understood by those who work within it and sets out how research should be conducted
What is falsification?
Means that for something to be scientific it must be possible that it could be proven false. If a theory stands up to falsification (tested repeated but is not proven wrong) it is a good theory
What are mertons CUDOS norms?
Communism-scientific knowledge should be shared with the community and not kept secret or private
Universalism- all scientists are regarded as equal so it should be there work that is challenged not them personally
Disinterestedness- scientists should be committed to truth and publish their findings honestly. There should be no fraud or subjective bias
Organised scepticism-all knowledge within science should be challenged and scrutiny should be encouraged
How do interpretivists argue that all knowledge should be constructed?
Interpretivists argue that all knowledge is socially constructed because rather than being an objective truth it is the result of the resources available to the social group creating it in the case of science the facts they create are the result of shared paradigms and theories and when new instruments are invented it allows for new observations and the creation of new facts
What does woolgar- little green men say sbout the sociology of scientific knowledge ?
Woolgar argues that scientists are engaged in the same process of making sense of the world as the rest of us when confronted with evidence they need to determine what it means for example the discovery of pulsars by Cambridge astronomy lab was initially annotated as LG1M1 and LGM2 meaning little green men but as this would be unacceptable to the scientific community they determined it must be an unknown type of star
What do feminsts and Marxists see scientific knowledge as?
See scientific knowledge as being far from the truth they see it as serving the interests of particular groups in society therefore any advances in supposedly pure science are in fact driven by capitalism for example the development of the theory of ballistics was driven by the need for new weaponry which could be manufactured and sold
What do postmodernists say about science ?
Science is one of a number of meta narratives which try to provide a big picture view of what is true.
Lyotard argues that science falsely claims to find the truth about how the world works as a means of progress to a better society where as in reality science is more of a discourse or way of thinking that is used to dominate people he believes that science has become a technoscience simply serving capitalist interests by producing commodities for profit
What are Aldridge: transitions from religious to scientific explanations ?
Theological stage- the stage in which phenomena are explained as arising from the actions of spirits, gods and other supernatural beings for exemplar the changing of the seasons explained by Persephones time in tartarus or on earth
Metaphysical stage- the stage in which the supernatural element is diminished and phenomena is explained as arising from the action of the natural, though abstract entities such as nature for example the changing seasons is natures cycle of life
Scientific stage- in this stage the previous stages are replaced by rational explanation which are based on evidence derived from observation and experimentation,logic and rational thought Weber refers to this as the disenchantment with the world the loss of the magical and mystical elects of the world
What is the impact of science on religion?
It can be argued that the growth of science has led to a decline in religion however this is not necessarily the case millions of poeple still identify themselves with one of the major religions in the world such as Christianity, Judaism,Islam and Buddhism all manner of religious and supernatural beliefs and superstitions still continue to have a huge impact on human behaviour for esxmaple the mass suicide at the poeple temple in 1978 and the heavens gate cult who beloved that they would be taken to heaven on a spaceship that was hidden behind The Hale bop comet in 1997 many people still hold abstract and unseen forces responsible for life events such as luck,magic,ghosts,tarot, esp and horoscopes
What do functionalists say about religions purpose?
Religion is a vital institution for maintaining social cohesion and solidarity
What does Durkheim (functionalist) say about the sacred and profane?
One of the main purposes of religion is to differentiate between the sacred and the profane (things that are ordinary )
What Durkheim say about totemism?
He studied the arunta aboriginal tribe the tribe consists of bands of kin who come together periodically to worship a sacred totem the totem is the clans emblem in the form of an animal or plant to represent the clans origins and identity these rituals reinforce the clans sense of belonging and solidarity
What does Durkheim say about collective conscious?
Sacred symbols represent the societies collective conscience. A collective conscience is the shared norms values beliefs and knowledge that make social living possible. Durkheim believed that regular religious rituals reinforce the collective conscience and maintains social intergration reminding people that they share a common moral outlook to which they owe loyalty
Religion also helps the individual to feel a part of something bigger than themselves
What does Durkheim say about cognitive functions and religion?
Durkheim believed that religion was the origin of concepts and categories that we need for reasoning, understanding the world and communication he argues that people need concepts such as time,space,cause,substance and number to make sense of the world and that we need to share these concepts with other in order to communicate effecitvely therefore for Durkheim religion is the origins of human thought,reason and science
How does Hamilton evaluate functionalists theory?
Ignores the way in which religion can be a source of social division for example in Northern Ireland between the Protestants and catholics
What does Lenin (Marxists) say about spiritual gin?
Religion is doled out to the masses by the rich and powerful in order to keep them confused and in their place. Lenin believed that the ruling class use religion cynically to manipulate the masses and prevent them from overthrowing the ruling class by keeping them in a mystical fog to obscure reality
What does Bloch (Neo Marxists) say about the dual nature of religion?
Religion has both a positive and negative influence on society. In many ways it can act as a conservative force on society and help to maintain social inequality and the status quo but it can also act as a force of social change as it can offer the “principe of hope” to its followers this principal of hope can in extreme circumstances lead to revolution
What is the liberation theology? Neo Marxism
A radical movement that grew up in South America as a response to the poverty and the ill treatment of ordinary people it was a response to the failure of the Vatican to help its followers with the poverty and exploitation that they faced the priests encouraged people to enforce change upon society even to use violence if necessary in order to over throw the dictators who were oppressing them the movement was successful in Nicaragua however the priests invloved were excommunicated by the Catholic Church for their roles in the Sandinista revolution
What is the case study of father Camilla Torres?
Camilo Torres restrepo (3 feb 1929 in Bogotá Colombia-15 feb 1966 in Santander) was a Colombian socialist, Roman Catholic priest, a predecessor of liberation theology and a member of the national liberation army guerrilla organisation during his life he tried to reconcile revolutionary Marxism and Catholicism
He helped to organise student potilical protests
What does Mary daly say about religion maintaining patriarchy?
Religions maintain the patriarchy by portraying male domination over women also as it was men who determined what was included in the bible they’re able to control the narrative daly concludes that there can’t be equality in religion until there is acceptance the god could be a women
E.g. portraying god as a man , restricting access for women to top levels of the church, depicting women in religious texts as bad influences or impure- e.g. eve causing the fall from grace,Delilah taking Sampson’s strength, Magdalene as a prostitute
What do stark and bainbridge say that religion offers compensators in three forms of deprivation?
Organismic deprivation-women are more likely to suffer ill health so will look to sects and cults for healing
Ethical deprivation-women tend to be more morally conservative and thus more likely to see the world in moral decline and share the views held by sects and cults
Social deprivation-sects and cults tend to attract the poorer groups in society and women are more likely to be in poverty than men
What does reflexivity mean?
We are continually reevaluating our ideas and theories nothing is fixed or permanent and everything is up to challenge
What does disembedding mean?
Means we no longer need face to face contact in order to interact there is a break down of geographical boarders thus making interaction more impersonal
What is cultural amnesia ?
Means the loss of the relgiion that was handed down by generations before instead parents are letting their children choose their own belief systems
What is a pluralist society ?
It is a diverse one where the people in it believe all kinds of different things and tolerate each others beliefs even when they don’t match their own
What do postmodernists say that religion caused the growth of ?
Postmodernists believe that traditional religions have been replaced by new age movements with a focus on spirituality and self improvement rather than devotion to a god
What do McGuire and Robinson say about the factors that determine if religion is a conservative force or a force for social change ?
1.the nature and extent of religious beleif: if most people in a society hold religious beliefs and these beliefs have a strong moral code which conflicts with some features of the existing society, then religion is likely to lead to criticism of society and attempt to change it
2.the significance of religion in society:if relgiion is a central part of the culture and everyday life of a society then relgiion is more likely to be used as a justification for social change
3.the extent of the social involvement of religion: in societies where religious leaders are close to those in power such as politicians and heads of state the more likely they are to influence social change
4.the degree of central authority in religious organisations: in societies where religious organisations have strong central authority, religion is in a much better position either to promote change or prevent it
What are the 4 main examples of religion as a social protest?
-American civil rights movement(MLK used Christian values to unite people
-the new Christian right (they wish to return to a system which more closely reflects the values of the bible like no homosexuality )
-millenarian movement (believe the supernatural will destroy this society and create a new one e.g heaven gate cult)
-liberation theology
What are the characteristics of a church and examples?
They are large, bureaucratic and closely linked to the state
They are conservative, integrate with the social and economic structure of society
They are universalist with open membership they tend to be intolerant and hegemonic they make up the ecclesia of a country
World accommodating
E.g. Church of England,Roman catholics, Islam,Judaism
What are the features of a denomination and examples?
Medium size
They’re bureaucratic but do have some division in authority and more democratic they are generally conservative
They are intergrate with the social and economic structure of society they are universalists with open membership they are tolerant of other demoninations
World accommodating
E.g. Methodists,Sunni Muslims,Orthodox Judaism,Buddhism
What are the characteristics of sects and examples?
Small
They are not bureaucratic and hierarchal but are more egalitarian they are radical in nature
They’re withdrawal
They have closed/controlled membership:they are intolerant of others
World rejecting
E.g peoples temples,the monies,Jehovah witnesses
What are the characteristics of a cult and exmpales ?
Small
They have a loose structure
They emphasise opportunity and success
They expect followers to continue living normal lives
They have open membership and are tolerant of other religions
May not be religious in nature
See their members as customers/consumers
E.g. Scientology
What are the characteristics of new religious movements and examples?
Small
They tend to be religious in nature
Membership is usually young adults
Temporary membership- high turnover
Led by a charismatic leader
Monopoly of truth and isolationist
Short lived and transient
E.g. heavens gate, Pentecostal movement
What are characteristics of new age movements and examples?
Small
Emphasis on the self
Everything is connected
The self is the final authority
Global cafeteria
Therapy
World affirming
E.g.astrology,tai chi,crystals,ufo
What do Heelas,Wallis and barker say about practical and pragmatic reasons for the growth of new religious movements?
Barker: religious organisations as escapes from the pressures of work and family life and can offer an alternative family structure
Wallis: NRMs can teach techniques that inspire people to achieve emotionally and materially by unlocking spiritual power within
Heelas: NRMs appeal to more affluent and highly education who feel that something is missing from their lives they seek these groups to fill that gap and have the money to pay for the services
According to baudrillard how have globalisation and media increased the growth of NRM?
Globalisation and mass media have opened up access to new ideas and belief systems from around the world this is what baudrillard refers to as a media saturated society he believes that this has allowed NRMS to grow as the media gives the group more of a public profile and visibility in order to attract members
According to Wilson why has social change and anomie caused the growth of NRM?
Wilson stated that periods of sudden or rapid social change can create anomie as it undermines or disrupts traditional norms and values and universes of meaning NRMs provide solutions to such periods of uncertainty as they provide new and clearly defined belief systems or a sense of certainty in an uncertain world the rise of NRMs then can be seen as a response to the uncertainties generated by the rapid social change that has occurred since the 1960s
According to Giddens and Bruce how has secularisation caused the growth of NRM?
Giddens: traditional religions have watered down their beliefs to fit in a more secular world people look to NRMs to receive comfort and community in NRMs which the big religions no longer offer
Bruce: loss of faith in traditional religious leaders who are seen as out of touch NRMs provide a refuge for those seeking spiritual and firm beliefs in a secular society
According to Weber, stark and bainbridge how has marginalisation caused the growth of NRM?
Weber: argued that groups like world rejecting NRMs are most likely to emerge among marginal. The NRMs appeal by providing a theodicy if disprivllege
Stark and bainbridge: world rejecting NRMs provide access to a close knit group of members in a similar position offering a sense of security,clear values and a reward in heaven
According to stark and bainbridge how has relative deprivation caused the growth of NRM?
Stark and bainbridge argued that the ideas and support derived from NRM membership may help to overcome those suffering a subjective feeling of being deprived or lacking something in comparison to those in the social group with which the individuals identify and compare themselves
According to lyotard and Bauman how has postmodernism caused the growth of NRM?
Lyotard: there is a loss of faith in meta narratives and what berger referred to as universes of meaning which have created gaps which people look to NRMSs to fill
Bauman: with so many conflicting ideologies and beliefs people experience a crisis of meaning and as such form and join NRMs to retain some control and normality
Identity formation:traditional forms of identity have become fragmented to people turn to NRMs to help from their identity
According to glock and stark how has protest caused the growth of NRM?
Glock and stark argue that NRMs emerge as a form of religious or social protest hence many may appeal to those whose values are at loggerheads with those of the society around them or of other religious groups
According to Wallis and barker how has status frustration caused the growth of NRM?
Wallis: argues that marginality may cause status frustration Wallis believes NRMs appeal to the young as membership can provide some support for an identity and status independent of school or family and so overcome the sense of status frustration
Barker: believes that young people lack the financial and time commitments of mortgage/rent and work/family which give them the time and freedom to get involved if they choose
What are the 4 reasons why sects are short lived?
-problems maintaining commitment
-loss of the leader
-changing circumstances
-religious diversity/postmodernism
What do barker and niebur say about sects having problems maintaining commitment ?
Barker: people are unable to cope with the strict discipline and rules imposed on members the heavy and often extreme commitment required is difficult to maintain so people leave
Niebur: the enthusiastic fervour is hard to maintain after the first generation this leads to wither the death of the sect or it will adapt and become less of a protest movement and more tolerate of mainstream society what Becker referred to this process as a sect cooling down and becoming more like a denomination
How has loss of the leader caused sects to be short lived?
Leaders of sects tend to be very charismatic which is what attracted people to the sect in the first place without that leader the group may collapse without a central figure to hold on to
Loss of a leader may be due to death or imprisonment
Why is it an evaluation of a loss of the leader of sect when not everyone leaves?
Not all groups disband after the loss of their leader some become more fanatical especially when the leader is imprisoned FLDS has continued since the arrest for warren jeffs charles Mansons family continued to support and follow his lead after his arrest and their own
Why are changing circumstances making sects short lived? And what does baker say
The social circumstance and personal reasons that originally led to someone to join a cult may change or disappear over a period of time making membership to the cult redundant second generation members may not have felt the initial reason for joining the sect so are more likely to leave
Baker: suggests that as younger people get older their reasons for joining the sect wane and they wish for a more normal life this then leads to either the sect disbanding or changing to become more of a denomination
According to postmodernists why are sects short lived?
Postmodernists believe that the modern world is characterised by a fragmentation of beleif and that the wide variety of religious and spiritual systems to choose from this allows people to experiment without making a long term commitment e.g. spritual shopping
The greater tolerance of beliefs also means that sects have a short shelf life due to changing fashions and consumer tastes
According to Aldridge why does he think sects aren’t short lived?
Many sects have existed for a long time and retain their features as a sect
Not all sects have a charismatic leader
Many sects are successful in socialising the next generation into the sects beliefs and practices as well as converting more followers
Sects have strict behaviour codes and expel anyone who doesn’t conform allowing them to maintain these standards over time
What are the two examples of sects that are long lived?
Jehovah’s Witness: developed in the 1880s and is still going strong today. Started by Charles Taze Russell but has had a number of different leaders since then
Amish: developed from a break within the Swiss anabaptist in 1693, those that followed Jakob Ammann became the Amish
According to Wilson how can conversionist sects turn to denominations?
Wilson-conversionist sects are most likely to turn into a denomination
These sects are less hostile to the wider world and believe that the best way to save the world is to convert people and spread their message
If successful and win a lot of support the group could develop into a denomination whilst maintaining the characteristics from when it was a smaller sect e.g Salvation Army
According to Wilson what are the two groups that will not survive denominational form?
Introvertist groups are able to continue as they believe that salvation is only achievable through isolation and not trying to convert people this is why they don’t survive in denominational forms
Advent/revolutionary sects these groups hold doomsday views and believe that only a selected group will be saved they are unlikely to become denominations as they do not compromise on their views,values or exclusivity of membership
In what 7 ways is religion patriarchal ?
1.religious scriptures
2.being barred from the priesthood
3.stained glass Ceiling
4.patriarchal religious doctrines
5.veiling of women
6.the portrayal of women as sexual predators and corruptors
7.women have fewer rights than men
How are religious scriptures making religion patriarchal?
In most religious scriptures women are subordinate or invisible to men
De Beauvoir 1953-scriptures suggests man is master by divine right
How does being barred from the priesthood make religion patriarchal?
Women are excluded form the priesthood in all major religions including Catholicism,Judaism,Islam,Hinduism and Sikhism
How does the stained glass ceiling make religion patriarchal?
Women face the same obstacle to career progression in the church as they face in other organisations
How does patriarchal religious doctrines make religion patriarchal?
In most religions the ideology emphasizes subordination of women and their role as wives and mothers e.g. Virgin Mary
How does the veiling of women make religion patriarchal?
Aldridge believes that this practice within Islam is a way of keeping women invisible and anonymous
How does the portrayal of women as sexual predators and corruptors make religion patriarchal?
Sex for reproduction only and women are out to seduce men to diver them from the religious duties periods are seen as something dirty e.g. jezebel and eve
How does women having fewer rights than men make religion patriarchal?
In some Islamic sects men can have multiple wives but a women can’t have multiple husbands Catholicism bans contraception,abolition and divorce
How can ancient polythetic religion be used as evaluation of religion not being patriarchal ?
Female goddesses were worshipped equally with male gods in Ancient Greece,Rome and Egypt
How can changes in monotheistic religions be used as evaluation of religion not being patriarchal ?
Female bishops from 2015 quakes, unitarians and baha’is are more gender equal- Aldridge
How can religion as a resistance be patriarchy be used as evaluation of religion not being patriarchal ?
Ahmed 1992, Watson 1994 and woodhead suggest veils are freeing woemn of male gaze and sexual harassment
How can gender and religiosity- the facts be used as evaluation of religion not being patriarchal ?
-women are more religious than men-brierley 2005
-women are more likely to identify as religious-BSAS 2012
-in all major religions except Sikhism woemn are more likely to practice religion-Ferguson and hussey 2010
-woemn have a greater interest and stronger commitment to their religion- miller and Hoffman 1995
What are the 5 reasons for gender and religiosity ?
1.gender role socialisation
2. Greater life expectancy
3.social deprivation and marginality
4.status frustration
5.new religious movements
Why is gender role socialisation a reasons for gender and religiosity ? What do Walter and davie adn miller and Hoffman say about it?
Walter and davie suggested women feel closer to god due to their involvement in the creation of life
Miller and Hoffman-suggest women are more religious because they are socialised into traits such as empathy and submissiveness
How is greater life expectancy a reasons for gender and religiosity ?
Women in general live longer than men this means they are more likely to be widowed and living on their own as they get older this can lead to greater religiosity as religion can be a source of support and comfort and means of building a support network
Why is social deprivation and marginality a reasons for gender and religiosity ?
Women are more likely than men to face social deprivation and marginality and may experience more disillusionment and alienation from wider society these circumstances means that women may look in the religion for support and solace in particular gorups which offer theodicies explaingin their feelings and as well as solutions and support
Why is status frustration a reason for gender and religiosity ?
Status frustration can be experienced by women who lack personal fulfilment or status as a result of being confined to the home or in lower middle class jobs religious participation may help to overcome or compensate for this
Why are new religious movements a reason for gender and religiosity ?
NRM-woemn are more likely to be mems of NRMs for three reasons :
-organismic deprivation:women are more likely to suffer ill health so will look to sects and cults for healing
-ethical deprivation :women tend to be more morally conservative and thus more likely to see the world in moral decline and share the views held by sects and cults
-social deprivation :sects and cults tend to attract the poorer groups in society and women are more likely to be in poverty than men
How does Linda woodhead 2004 evaluate changes in the role of women and gender and religion?
Changes in the role of women have changed the way they engage with religion she identifies types of women with regards to religious participation :
Home centred- women who stay at home rather than work these women are more likely to engage in traditional religions as they subscribe to conservative values and they may also require the support that the churches offer because they lack status
Work centred- woemn who work in demanding jobs are more likely to be secular because they don’t have time for religious activities and can’t relate to the way women are portrayed. By those religions
Jugglers- women who balance work and family life still eek some sort of spiritual experience of guidance these woemn are more likely to be involved in NAM which are more individualistic and require less commitment
What does aune et al 2004 say about women’s participation has been in decline due to 3 main reasons?
Feminism-feminist movements has led to women questioning the role of woemn in society as well as in religious organisations
Changing role of woemn- with women taking on paid work it is taking the place of religion as focus for woemn as well as limiting the time they have for religious activities
Changing family relationships- contemporary society has growing diversity in family structures and role including changes in living arrangements which are often disapproved of by traditional churches
What does religiosity mean?
Refers to the extent to which someone sees themselves as religious
What are the two minority ethnic groups religions?
Afro Caribbean-the main religion among Afro Caribbean groups is Christianity and Afro caribbeans made up 17% of those attending church on the average Sunday in 2007
Their Christianity had developed mainly in the Pentecostal and charismatic tradition and found that British churches were boring so they established their own churches
Asian groups- main religions of Asians tend to be non Christian and include Islam,Sikhism and Hinduism this has meant that this ethnic minority has had to establish its own temples,mosques and places of worship in contemporary Britain
Growing up in contemporary Britain has also led to difficulty for these religions to maintain traditional values such as the Hindu caste system with young people as they have grown up in a society of equal opportunities
What are the facts of ethnicity and religiosity ?
Ethnic minorities tend to be more religious than the ethnic minority in the uk and religious affiliation forms a big part of their ethnic identity
Brierley 2013-black people are twice as likely to attend church as white people
Muslims,Hindus and black Christian’s are more likely yo see religion as important and attend weekly at their place of worship
Modood-there is less religiosity amongst second generation ethnic groups
What are the 4 reasons for ethnic minority religiosity ?
-cultrual defence
-cultrual transition
-social deprivation and marginality
-social identity
What do Bruce and bird say about cultural defence as a reason for ethnic minority religiosity ?
Bruce-religion can offer support and a sense of cultrual identity in uncertain or hostile environments
Bird- religion can be a basis for community solidarity a means of preserving one’s culture, language and a way of coping with a oppression in a racist society
What do Herberg and pryce say about cultural transition being a reason for ethnic minority religiosity ?
Herberg-religion can be a means of easing the transition into a new culture by providing support and a sense of community in the new environment
Pryce- Pentecostalism is a highly adaptive relgiion which provided migrants with values that were appropriate to their new world in a format that they could understand
How is social deprivation and marginality a reason for ethnic minority religiosity?
A sense of dissatisfaction with a lack of status in society may account for higher religiosity amongst ethnic minorities as many ethnic minority groups are amongst the poorest in the uk some older Asian woemn may turn to relgiion as a source of support as they are marganilased from the mainstream due to a poor grasp of English relgiion may also provide a source of identity ans status that is lacking from the mainstream
Why is social identity a reason for ethnic minority religiosity?
Religion can help to provide many markers of identity for ethnic minorities such as dress,food and customs as well as ritual and festivals they celebrate this can help members to resist the denial of their status and the devaluing of their culture through racism
Jacobson-British born Pakistanis in the east end of London identified as Muslim rather than Asian or Pakistani first as this provided them with the stability,security and certainty when they face a lot of uncertainty in other aspects of their lives
What are the trends in age and religion- brierley 2015?
-the only group to show a recent rise in church attendance is the over 65 age group
-since 1980 the number of under 15s attending church regularly has halved
-by 2025 it is projected that only 2.5% of regular church goers will be between 15 and 19 years old
-half of uk churches have none under the age of 20 in their congregation
Why are the elderly more religious ? Voas and Crockett 2003
The aging effect-as people come closer to the end of their lives their interest in spirituality and what comes next increases this can lead to greater religiosity as people look for answers about the after life and forgiveness for past sins this may also explain why more elderly women attend church then men as they live longer
Generational effect-the current elderly gneration may be more religious due to their upbringing which was less secure then that experienced by todays youth due to war and massive social change
Norris and inglehart call this an existential security theory
Due to socialisation why are the young less religious?
Arweck and beckford argue it is increasingly unlikely that parents will pass on their religious beliefs to their children
VOAs- suggests that this could be due to the growth of inter faith marriages Sunday schools which were once quite prevalent are now quite rare meaning that churches are unable to recruit from them
This links with hervieu-legers idea of cultrual amnesia
How is ritualism and tradition making the young less religious?
Brierley- 87% of 10-14 year olds in 2015 felt that church was boring and that they couldn’t relate to the rituals and traditional teachings so they avoided attending
How is individualisation making the young less religious ?
Collins-mayo- religion has become more of a personal choice in postmodern society therefore the young don’t feel pressured to obligated to affiliate themselves with a particular church of relgiion and choose to spend their weekends and free time on leisure activists and hobbies
What do Marxists say about the trends in social class and relgiion?
Traditional Marxists suggest that religiosity and religious participation is more prominent in the most deprived of society for those people religion provides a means of coping with the deprivation and oppression whereas the ruling class use religion as a means of justifying their authority and ideology however there isn’t much in the way of reliable data on social class and religiosity due to the complex nature of social class
What are the trends in social class and religion in churches and denominations ?
The upper and middle classes tend to be over represented in churches in 2015 a yougov survey found that over 60% of those that regularly attended church considered themselves middle class and only 38% considered themselves working class
Farthing- found that church attendance tends to be more of a middle class activity with the upper classes were more fringe or occasional church goers and the manual working class were the least likely to be regular attendees
What are the trends in social class and religion in sects,cults and new age?
Sects appear to gain the majority of their support from amongst the most deprived and marganalised groups in society
Cults tend to attract their membership from a cross section of society including deprived and marganlised groups however Bruce and Heelas suggest that new age cults and world affirming NRMs have more appeal to the more affluent in society due to the consumer nature of the group
Heelas suggests that new age movements are more attractive to middle class movements who can afford it
According to Wilson 1966 what is secularisation?
Secularisation is the process whereby religious thinking,practice and institutions lose social significance
Why is the definition of secularisation a problem with measuring secularisation?
As was seen earlier there is very little consensus on what is meant by the term religion and being religious (inclusivist vs exclusivists)
Why is it difficult to determine the validity of measuring secularisation?
Due to the problems with defining the terms it is difficult to determine the validity of any research that is conducted
Historical documents are sparse making it difficult to find trends
Results are open to interpretation- high participation doesn’t mean high belief martin 1969 Victorian society required church attendance for respectability
Why is reliability a problem with measuring secularisation?
Historical documents regarding religiosity may not meet contemporary standards of reliability there are too many variables in terms of the wording of the questions if the questions are available etc.
social desirability is a huge factor in the study of religion census-what is your religion (68% have a religion)/ BHA are you religious (29% said yes)
Why is representativeness a problem with measuring secularisation ?
Can results that are obtained on relgiion be generalised to the rest of the population
What is woodhead and Heelas 2000 view of secularisation?
Disappearance thesis- modernity has brought on the death of relgiion. Religion as a whole has lost significance for both the individual and society and this decline will continue until relgiion disappears
Differentiation thesis-religion is in social decline but not individual decline religion no longer plays an important role in the day to day running of society but individual beleif is still strong
What are the 8 causes of secularisation?
Old fashioned-the rituals and traditions of the main religions are seen as out of touch with the modern world
Loss of status-religious leaders have lost status in society particularly in the wake of sex abuse scandals
Loss of functions-many of the functions carried out by the church like welfare,health care and education have been taken over by the welfare state
Challenges from sects,cults- links to TRs being old fashioned in that people are looking for teachings that fit more with the modern thinking
Changing leisure patterns-fragmented and consumers based lifestyles have meant that Sundays are no longer a day of rest/rellgion
Growth of science- Comte and Weber saw rationalisation of the modern world by sciences displacing the religious understanding the world
Decline of meta narratives- people are abandoning what were once taken for granted beliefs and facts and are shopping around for beleif systems that match their own values
Religious pluralism-due to globalisation countries like the uk have become multi faith meaning that no one relgiion commands the respect of the whole nation
What does Weber and Bruce say about desacralisation of consciousness as an argument for secularisation?
Loss of the ability to experience a sense of sacredness or the mystery of life caused by the growth of scientific knowledge and application of technology Bruce 2002
What does Bruce 2008 say about marginalisation of religion as an argument for secularisation ?
Religious belief is now in the most part the last resort once science and technology have failed e.g. cancer
How is decline in morality an argument for secularisation?
Traditional chruch based views of things such as divorce,abortion,cohabition,sex outside of marriage and homosexuality impact little on peoples behaviour
According to lyotard and Bauman why is decline in meta narratives and the fragmentation of belief an argument for secularisation?
Postmodernists like lyotard and Bauman argue that meta narratives like religion have lost their influence as people are more likely to control their own identities in a liquid,pick n mix world
People now have more choice to create do it yourself identities and enter the spiritual supermarket when it comes to their beliefs
How id decline in religious knowledge an argument for secularisation?
2001 census: highlights evidence to support that many people who claim they are religious really know little about their religion :72% of showed they knew little about the life of Jesus or the meaning of events such as Easter and Christmas
According to Berger why is a plausibility structure an argument for secularisation ?
Religious diversity creates a crisis of credibility with so many views available religious beliefs become relative rather than absolute
Why is decline in religious practice an argument for secularisation ?
Declining membership-in the uk decline can be seen in all major Christian denominations
Declining attendance-in 2007 2%of the population attended religious ceremonies on Sundays compared with 40% in 1851 there is also declining attendance at Christmas and Easter
Decline in marriage and baptism- fewer than 1/2 of all marriages in the uk involve a religious ceremony less than 1/4 of babies are now baptised compared to 2/3 in 1950
Decline in Sunday schools-100 years ago half of children attended Sunday schools if current trends continue Sunday schools will become extinct
Why is small membership in NAM and NRM an argument for secularisation?
Despite the growing numbers of NAM and NRMs membership is still very small also the growth of new NRMS/NAMs is insignificant to the number of religious movements that are collapsing
How is the decline of power and influence of religious institutions an argument for secularisation?
Many church buildings are dilapidated and being left to crumble today even though in medieval times even the poor donated to the upkeep of grand,ornate churches
The church has lost many of its power to other institutions- structural differentiation
Religious institutions command declining respect for major festivals such as Christmas and Easter which are fast becoming money making empty festivals
The church has little influence over social policies e.g. civil partnerships are legal now despite opposition from some religions
People look toward new knowledge systems and ways of viewing the world-particularly with the advent of the internet within the globalised world
How is the ecumenical movement a reason for secularisation?
The ecumenical movement might be interpreted as a sign of weakness within religious organisations
According to Herberg how is secularisation for within an argument for secularism ?
Herberg suggests that religions are going against their traditions and regulations themselves and as such are showing weakness he points out the ordination of women as evidence of this and also the downplaying of miracles and the literal interpretations of scripture, the acceptance of homosexuality as evidence of this
According to Heelas why is resacrilisation an argument against secularisation ?
Heelas argues that the world is going through a spiritual revolution people are getting more invloved in new age holistic milieu-mind body spirituality
People are rediscovering religion in personalised forms pick n mixing their religious and spritrual self and tailoring their religious identities as there is more choice in modern society
Why is traditional religious beliefs remain strong a reason against secularisation?
Evangelicalists believe that the bible is the literal word of god and should be followed strictly
Followers believe in sin,possessions,the second coming of Christ,faith healing and miracles. Evangelical Christianity can’t be accused of being watered down and is an examples of strong, traditional beliefs being present in the world
Strong,traditional beliefs are also present with Hinduism,Sikhism and Islam
Why is religion still forms the basis for many societies a reason against secularisation?
Religion is so ingrained with many societies that it actually acts as the foundation for those societies and therefore will always be important
Even events that occur within the world that seem completely unrelated to religion often really care
According to davie 2002 believing without belonging and the privatisation of religious practice is an argument against secularisation how?
Believing in god doesn’t necessarily mean attending a religious institution or service people can express their beliefs and worship at home in a privatised manner-helped by tv,radio and the internet also church attendance may have been higher in the past because there was a social pressure to attend if you wanted respectability that social pressure is no longer there
How is ethnocentricity a reason against secularisation?
Although membership to come faiths are declining it is important to note that some groups such as the Mormons and jehovahs witnesses and religions such as Islam,Sikhism and Hinduism are actuallly increasing in membership
Some researchers might be accused of ethnocentricity by focusing only on traditional western Christian religions it is also worth noting that many people still attend religious institutions for events such as marriage,baptism and funeral
According to warner 1993 how is the religious economy theory a reason against secularisation?
Although some see the sheer number of sects,cults and denominations (religious pluralism) out there as religion losing its meaning,warner argues that market competition actually makes these institutions stronger and more powerful
What long term evidence is there of secularisation in the uk according to crockett and Wilson?
Crockett-1851 40% of adults regularly attended church
Wilson-1960s only 10-15% of adults attended church regularly
Church weddings,baptism and Sunday school attendance has also declined
Great diversity in beleif including non Christian beleif
How are religious practices evidence of secularisation in the uk?
The trend in attendance to church services has continued to decline. CoE in 1960 had 1.6 million regular attendees in 2013 that had dropped to 0.8 million
However smaller denominations are seeing less of a decline
Bogus baptism-to attend a faith school
How are religious affiliation evidence of secularisation in the uk?
British social attitudes survey showed that between 1983 and 2014 the number of adults with no religious affiliation rose from 1/3 to about half there was slight increase in catholics due to migration from Eastern Europe and Christian denominations have stayed static since 1983
According to Bruce how is religious influence evidence of secularisation in the uk?
He points out that in the Middle Ages the church was central to society with enormous wealth and power church leaders excercised real power over secular matters such as education,law making,social welfare and politics
However in modern society religious institutions have become more marganlised as they have lost this power many people today can live their lives completely untouched by religious institutions
According to Davie how is beleving without belonging a reason against secularisation in the uk?
Religious beleif has become privatised but this doesn’t mean that there has been a decline in person religious beleif Davie suggests that the nature of religious activity has changed and people are believing without having to belong to a congregation she refers to this a vicarious religion
According to Hellend how is online religion an argument against secularisation in the uk?de
Developed the idea that people could be religious without having to attend a place of worship the growth of the internet has changed the way that people can interact with the religious community and religious beleif has become disembedded
Hellend suggests two ways that the internet has changed religious practices
1.religion online-when religious movement use the internet to communicate their message to followers
2.online relgiion- where like minded people interact in forums and discuss their beliefs in an unstructured format
According to Wilson 1962 how is attendance in churches on Sundays as evidence of secularisation in the USA?
Wilson found that 42% of Americans attended church on Sundays,however he argued that church going in America was more of an expression of the American way rather than religious beleif Wilson argued that America had become a secular society not because people had abandoned churches but because religion had become superficial
According to hadaway 1993 how is declining church attendance evidence of secularisation in the USA?
He found that Wilson’s figure of 40% didn’t add up as if 40% of the population went to church on Sunday all the churches would be full and that wasn’t the case his study found that the level of attendance to church was 83% higher than the head counts they conducted suggesting there is an exaggeration in church attendance when asked
According to Bruce how is secularisation from within evidence of secularisation in the USA?
He suggested that American religion has adapted to modern society by moving from tradition beleif and glorification of god to a more psychological or therapeutic beleif system this has allowed religion to remain popular in a more secular society religion has moved from seeking salvation to self improvement
According to Bruce how is religious diversity evidence of secularisation in the USA?
Bruce has identified a trend towards practical relativism among American Christian’s which involves the acceptance of differing views this is shown in lynd and lynd study from 1929 which found that 94% of young Christian’s agreed with the statements that Christianity is the one true religion and all people should convert to it compared to only 41% in 1977
According to stark and bainbridge how is Eurocentric secularisation evidence for secularisation in the USA?
Stark and bainbridge argue that secularisation theorists try to fool people into believing that there was a golden age of religion in the past and this has since declined instead they believe that religious beleif flows through cycles in which temporary periods of secularisation are followed by periods of religious revival which occur due to the creation of new religions and NAMs.
What is the religious market theory suggested by stark and bainbridge and how does it prove secularisation in the USA?
According to stark and bainbridge there are 2 assumptions about human nature and the way people engage with religion
1.people. Are naturally religious-there will always be a demand for some form of religion
2.all humans want big rewards for the smallest cost-humans make rational decisions about what benefits them the most
They believe that by believing in religion has a small cost with barely any risk and promises great reward
What is fundamentalism?
Fundamentalism appeal to tradition-they seek return to the basis or fundamentals of their faith
What are the three types of fundamentalism?
-Western fundamentalism
-third world fundamentalism
-secular fundamentalism
What is western fundamentalism and what example does Bruce use?
Fundamentalism develops as a reaction to changes within society, especially the trend towards diversity and secular choices.
Bruce uses the example of the New Christian Right in the USA which has developed as a response to family diversity, sexual permissiveness, gender equality, secular education and the privatisation of religion.
They aim to restore religion to a public role where they can shape laws and morals.
What is third world fundamentalism ?
Fundamentalism as a reaction to change being thrust upon a society from outside.
If is often triggered by Westernisation imposed by foreign capital or local elites supported by the West.
Here fundamentalism is a reaction to the states attempts to privatise religion.
Bruce uses the Islamic Revolution in Iran as an example of this.
What is secular fundamentalism? And what does Davie say about this
Davie
First Phase (18c - 1960’s) Enlightenment philosophy held optimistic secular belief in progress based on science and reason.
Second Phase (1970’s +) Enlightenment has come under attack due to growing pessimism and uncertainty caused by globalisation and environmental issues.
This has led to a rise in nationalism and anti-religious sentiment.
What are 7 characteristics of fundamentalism?
Literalism-a literal interpretation of religious text
Them and us mentality-separateness from the rest of the world they are right everyone else is wrong
Agresssive action-they like to draw attend to their perceived threat to their beliefs through aggressive action as directed by elders
Modern technology-although the groups are against modern society they tend to use modern technology to achieve their aims
Patriarchy
Prophecy
Conspiracy
What are the causes of fundamentalism according to Giddens?
Globalisation which undermines traditional social norms concerning the nuclear family,sexuality,abortion etc cosmopolitanism refers to a way of thinking that embraces modernity, is open to alternative views and modifies beliefs based on new ideas
What are the causes of fundamentalism according to Bruce ?
Monotheism and fundamentalism- fundamentalism is a unique feature of monotheic religions due to the fact that they have a single text from which gods will is given whereas polythetic religions such as Hinduism are lack a single authority and are sometimes considered more a collection of religions
What are the causes of fundamentalism according Bauman?
Postmodertnity- too much choice can cause uncertainty and heightened awareness of risk in this situation some will embrace the freedom whilst others are attracted to fundamentalism
What are causes of fundamentalism according to castells?
Responses to fundamentalism:
Resistance identity-a defensive reaction of those that feel threatened and retreat to fundamentalism
Project identity-response of the forward thinking who engage with social movements such as environmentalism and feminism
How does beckford evaluate the causes of fundamentalism ?
-ignore hybrid movements
-fixate on fundamentalism and ignore the impact of globalisation on religions such as catholicism
-Giddens ignores differences between fundamentalists groups
-Giddens doesn’t consider a return to tradition as a reflexive rather than defensive action
How does Haynes evaluate causes of fundamnetialm. ?
Islamic fundamentlaism isnt always a reaction against globalisation but a reaction to local elites failing to deliver on promises to improve the standard of living
According to Huntington 1996 what is a clash of civilisations?
Nation states are less significant as a source of identity creating a gap that religion has filled. Globalisation has also increased contact between civilisation which can cause conflict leading to a them v us mentality
Religious differences are hard to resolve than political ones due to them being deeply rotted in history and culture
Huntington believes that the rise in Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction to western civilisation
7 civilisations:
-western,Islamic,Japanese,Slavic orthodox,Hindu,Confucian,Latin American
How does Jackson 2006 evaluate clash of civilisations?
Orientalism: western ideology stereotyping eastern people and religions as trustworthy in order to justify human rights abuses
What is the Poland cultural defence case study 1945-1989?
From 1945-1989 Poland was under communist rule imposed from outside by the Soviet Union during this time the Catholic Church was suppressed but for many poles it continued to embody polish national identity the church served as a popular rallying point against the communist regime and the polish communsit party in fact the church lent active support to solidarity and did much to bring about the fall of the communist regime in the 1980s
What’s irans cultrual defence case study of globalisation?
Western Powers and Big Oil companies have long held influence in tran including
the overthrowing of democratic
government in the 1950’s in orer to estabish
a pro-west regime headed by the Shah of
Iran. During the 1960’s and 1970’s his successor embarked on a poicy of modernisation and westernisation. This
included banning veil and replacing the
Muslim calendar.
Change was rapidly imposed from above which caused great suffering which led to
Isom oecoming te rocus for resistonce under the leadership of the Ayatollah
Khomeini. The revolution of 1979 brought
about the creation of the Islamic Republic in which clerics held state power and were able to impose Islamic Sharia Law.
Rise of globalisation in India and Hinduism nanda 2000?
Globalsation has led to rapid economia growth in india, it has also led to a rising prosperity and a new middle class developing
Nanda examines the role that Hinduism played in this growth and the development of ultra Hinduism in the growing middle class.
Nando claims that the surge in populority of Hinduism is due to the role of tek-Gurus which has changed the way that Hindu’s value
Prosperity and wealth. Generally Hinduism
denounces wealth as a sin, however contemporary Guru’s view wealth in a progressive way suggesting it is a sign of divine favour.
This encourages young people to purse the opportunities available to them without the
guilt imposed by traditional Hinduism. This has led to an economic growth simiar to that of Calvinism.
Nanda suggests that Hindus believe that it is their Hindu values that have led to the economic growth and prosperity. As a result
Hinduism is creating a sense of ultra nationalism by generating a worship of the Indian culture rather than a focus on the gods
Parallels could be drawn between this an Bellah’s Civil reigion.
What is the impact of rapid spread of Pentecostalism across South America according to Berger?
The rapid spread of Pentecostalism across South America has had a similar impact to Calvinism in Europe. Berger suggests that
Pentecostalsm has become a strong rival to Catholicism as it out of poverty rather than waiting for salvation in the after ife. This in turn simulates the economy by inspiting followers to adopt a dedicated work ethic
In 2011 how many people ages over 65 were Christian’s?
1 in 5 Christian’s according to the 2011 census
Why are the elderly losing their faith according to coleman?
Found that older people are losing faith in god as they age. His study tracked over 300 ppl over 65 of pensioners over 20 years. The proportion that felt that religion was important to them fell from almost 3-quarters to less than half. Involvement in organised religion also declined. The reason given was a general questioning of authority in society and a disappointment with both churches and the clergy
What does heelas argue about religion and age?
Argues that those involved in new age were Middle Ages or older
What does Bruce say about religion and age?
Arguing that its Middle Ages,middle class women in caring professions that dominate the new age
They may be seeking self improvement and have the money available to be involves in activists such crystal healing and yoga
What is A03 of why older people might not be religious?
Older people may not be more religious-they may turn to religion for social reasons many older people live alone as their partners and friends die they may turn to religion as it can offer support and companionship for older people
What does hervieu-leger say about age and relgiion?
Believes there has been cultural amnesia of religion where children have failed to have been. Socialised in religious doctrine. Instead individual consumerism has replaced collective tradition therefore the young are less religious
What does Durkheim say about age and relgiion?
Believes that there would be a growth of religious surrogates e..g football,celebrities has replaced religion. People may carry out other actives- leisure has become a much bigger part of life
Young ppl have more demands on their time and many prefer to do leisure activities
