Women in Irish Politics

Question 1

List off formal of structural challenges to female representation.

Answer 1

1. Stage of state development
2. Electoral system (proportional representation vs. majoritarian)
3. Party system (dual vs. multi party)
4. Party ideology

Question 2

What is the distribution of legislators in the world by gender ?

Answer 2

Men - 73.6%

Women - 26.4%

(From 11.7% in 1997, yearly increases of about 0,5 percent)

Question 3

What are some informal challenges to female representation ?

Answer 3

The 5 Cs (culture, cash, caregiver, confidence, candidacy)

Question 4

What is the distribution of women MPs in Europe (highest to lowest) ?

Answer 4

1. Nordic countries
2. Western Europe
3. Southern Europe
4. Central and Eastern Europe

Question 5

What are gender quotas and how can they be efficiently implemented ?

Answer 5

They are designed for electoral system. Meant to regulate numbers.

Because the bounded nature of politics means that properly implemented quota, it means less men for more women.

To be efficient, they must:

• include placement mandate if possible (List PR)
• have high enough magnitude, min = 30%
• include strong sanction for non-compliance by parties

Question 6

What percentage of women elected as TDs in Ireland are women over the years ?

Answer 6

Between 1918 and 2020;

Men = 1211 (so 90.3%)

Women = 130 (so 9.7%)

• 1918 = 1% W and 99% M
• 1981 = 7% W and 93% M
• 1992 = 12% W and 88% M
• 2016 = 22% W and 78% M

Question 7

What are the hidden advantages to male candidates in STV ?

Answer 7

The 4 Gs.

1. Their gender
2. Geography (selected because of geography and the difficulty of intersectionality
3. Genetics (coming from a political family)
4. The GAA

Question 8

How do parties select candidates ?

Answer 8

Internal Candidate Pool

Membership decreasing leads to an increasing dependence on internal public reps, i.e. incumbents and those with Election Experience,

This pool is dominated by men.

External Candidate Pool

External selection focuses on : high profile supporters, independents, celebrity options

Again, fields that tend to be in the main male.

Question 9

What characteristics do parties look for in their candidates and how does that work as an advantage for male candidates ?

Answer 9

Objective: networks, profile, resources

All these traits that have highly gendered implications

Subjective: electability, commitment, perception,

Traits, particularly the measurement of commitment in terms of visibility, demands resources not just in terms of ability, but with greater emphasis on time and money, are particularly difficult for those responsible for child or parental care

Question 10

What are some future challenges for women in Irish Politics ?

Answer 10

1. Unconscious bias in party selectors – Brennan & Elkink, 2015
2. Unconscious bias in the media “Our academic conclusion is that …. must develop new routines and norms to ensure that more women does not mean less attention for each woman” Courtney et. al., 2020
3. Harassment of politicians: public, online, etc.
4. With the magnitude of the quota due to increase to 40% at the next election, parties cannot expect to select more women from a diminishing pool using criteria that negatively impacts the assessment of female aspirants. - must change criteria

Question 11

What is the historical context of gender inequality in Irish politics ?

Answer 11

The text highlights the stark gender inequality present in Irish political and public life in the 1970s.

During this time, contraception was illegal, women faced discrimination in the public service upon marriage, deserted wives and unmarried mothers lacked state support, female jurors were rare, and women were paid less than men for the same work.

Additionally, female representation in the Dáil was notably lacking, dating back to the foundation of the state in 1922. (Galligan, 2021)

Question 12

What are some persistent themes in gender inequality ?

Answer 12

Despite changes over time, certain issues have persisted in Irish politics, including prolonged debates over abortion, the gender pay gap, and the under-representation of women in decision-making roles. These issues continue to shape public policy and gender relations in Ireland. (Galligan, 2021)

Question 13

What factors influence gender equality or inequality ?

Answer 13

Despite changes over time, certain issues have persisted in Irish politics, including prolonged debates over abortion, the gender pay gap, and the under-representation of women in decision-making roles. These issues continue to shape public policy and gender relations in Ireland. (Galligan, 2021)

Question 14

What is the gender contract in the Irish constitution ?

Answer 14

The 1937 Constitution of Ireland enshrined a gender contract that confined women to traditional roles as homemakers.

Article 41.2 explicitly emphasized women’s role in the home and their contribution to the common good through domestic duties.

This constitutional provision reflected Catholic social teaching and faced opposition from feminist groups during its drafting. (Galligan, 2021)

Question 15

Discuss mobilization and legal reforms in Ireland regarding feminism.

Answer 15

Despite entrenched patriarchy, feminist movements emerged in the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s advocating for women’s rights. These movements challenged restrictions such as the marriage bar in the civil service. Legal reforms, including the repeal of the marriage bar in 1973 and subsequent equal pay and employment opportunities legislation, marked progress towards gender equality. (Galligan, 2021)

Question 16

What are the institutional responses to gender inequality ?

Answer 16

Government responses to gender inequality included the establishment of the Commission on the Status of Women in 1970 and subsequent policy recommendations. Additionally, the formation of organizations like the Irish Women’s Liberation Movement and the Council for the Status of Women contributed to advocacy and lobbying efforts. (Galligan, 2021)

Question 17

How did these attitudes towards gender roles evolve over time ?

Answer 17

The text highlights changing attitudes towards traditional gender roles, particularly regarding Article 41.2 of the Constitution, which emphasized women’s role in the home. Calls for its amendment or deletion reflect evolving societal norms and international pressure to promote gender equality and challenge traditional stereotypes. (Galligan, 2021)

Question 18

Discuss controversial issues and conflicting interpretations of equality.

Answer 18

Abortion emerged as a contentious issue reflecting broader debates over gender equality, autonomy, and tradition. The insertion of the 8th Amendment to the Constitution in 1983, banning abortion except in cases where the mother’s life was at risk, showcased the clash between conservative and liberal values in Irish society.

From 1983 onwards, Ireland saw a series of legal battles and public debates revolving around the interpretation and application of Article 30.3.3 of the Constitution, which restricted abortion. One pivotal case was the 1992 X case, where a teenage girl, pregnant from rape, was initially prevented from traveling abroad for an abortion by a High Court injunction. The Supreme Court eventually allowed her to travel due to a “real and substantial risk” to her life. The government’s attempts to amend Article 30.3.3 through referendums in 1992 and 2002 were met with mixed results, indicating a complex societal stance on the issue.

Legal battles continued, including the C case in 1997, the D case in 2007, and the A, B, and C cases in 2010, all addressing various aspects of abortion rights and restrictions, with some cases taken to the European Court of Human Rights. These legal challenges highlighted the right of women to self-determine their reproductive choices and illustrated the evolving legal landscape surrounding abortion in Ireland.
Public and international pressure for reform intensified, particularly after the tragic death of Savita Halappanavar in 2012, leading to calls for the removal of Article 30.3.3 from the Constitution. International bodies such as the United Nations Human Rights Committee criticized Ireland’s abortion laws, emphasizing the need for decriminalization and safe access to abortion services. Public opinion gradually shifted towards liberalization, culminating in the historic referendum in 2018, where 66.4% voted to repeal Article 40.3.3, signaling a significant milestone in Ireland’s reproductive rights journey.
In parallel with the abortion debate, Ireland underwent significant changes in gender equality policies and practices. Initiatives such as the creation of the Ministry of Women’s Affairs in 1982, reforms in family law, and the establishment of gender mainstreaming strategies aimed to address gender disparities in various sectors. Ireland’s commitment to international agreements such as CEDAW and the Beijing Declaration underscored its dedication to promoting gender equality.
The integration of gender mainstreaming into national policies and the adoption of systematic national plans for women and gender equality from 2001 onwards reflected Ireland’s evolving approach towards achieving gender equality. Legislative measures, such as the Electoral (Amendment) Political Funding Act, 2012, aimed to increase women’s representation in political decision-making processes. Despite these advancements, challenges such as glass ceilings in senior positions and persistent gender biases persisted, indicating that the gender contract between women, the state, and society in Ireland remained a work in progress even a century after women gained the right to vote. (Galligan, 2021)

Question 19

Discuss public indifference and gender representation.

Answer 19

Despite public indifference to having a TD of the same gender, surveys show a strong desire for increased women representation in politics. In 2016, 62% of respondents believed there should be more women TDs, reflecting a growing recognition of the need for gender equality in political representation. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 20

How were gender inequalities addressed legislatively ?

Answer 20

Legislative changes and policy reforms have been made to address gender inequality, including the Gender Pay Gap Information Act 2021 and the establishment of the Citizens’ Assembly on Gender Equality in 2019, which made 45 recommendations for change across various areas. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 21

Who were the most prominent women representatives in Ireland ?

Answer 21

Women’s representation in political institutions has been historically low, with significant milestones achieved by prominent figures such as Constance Markievicz, Máire Geoghegan-Quinn, Mary Robinson, and Mary McAleese. However, their accomplishments underscore the broader under-representation of women in Irish politics. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 22

Discuss progress in women’s political representation.

Answer 22

Progress in women’s political representation has been slow since the late 1970s, with only 131 out of 1,342 individuals elected to Dáil Éireann between 1918 and 2021 being women, representing just 10% of total representatives. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 23

How have international organs looked to Ireland’s representation ?

Answer 23

International bodies, such as the UN, have expressed concern over Ireland’s significant under-representation of women in elected political structures and encouraged sustained measures to increase women’s representation.

Despite progress, Ireland’s Dáil continues to lag behind in gender balance compared to other EU legislatures. The absence of women’s voices and experiences in decision-making during the Covid-19 pandemic resulted in significant criticism of the government and its policies. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 24

Discuss the influence of the 2008 economic crisis and its impact on representation in Ireland.

Answer 24

The economic downturn of 2008 acted as a catalyst for political reform, leading to proposals for gender-balancing mechanisms in candidate selection processes and the linking of public funding of political parties to the proportion of women candidates selected. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 25

What is the debate between quotas and targets ?

Answer 25

There has been a shift in discourse from advocating gender quotas to softer strategies like gender targets, reflecting debates within political parties and among policymakers about the most effective means to promote gender equality in politics. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 26

What is being done in Ireland to increase the number of women elected ?

Answer 26

Gender Quota Legislation: The legislation stipulates that political parties face a 50% reduction in payments unless a minimum of 30% of candidates authenticated by the party in the preceding general election were women, with an equal proportion being men. This threshold increased to 40% after March 2023. Notably, this quota applies specifically to general elections.

Efforts to support women’s participation in politics include capacity-building programs and mentoring initiatives. However, despite these efforts, party expenditure on promoting women remains low. Calls have been made for political parties to offer more support to members experiencing harassment and intimidation. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 27

What is the impact of the gender quota ?

Answer 27

Since the introduction of the gender quota law, there has been a notable increase in women’s candidacy at general elections, rising by 90%. Furthermore, women’s representation in the Dáil increased by 48%, although they still only accounted for 23% of all TDs in 2022.

Despite advancements, male dominance remains prevalent in Irish politics. In 2020, only 26% of ministerial positions were held by women, which did signify improvement from a mere 4% in 1977. However, there’s a discernible pattern in the types of ministerial portfolios assigned to women, indicating a gendered bias in such assignments. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 28

Is the representation different in local governments ?

Answer 28

Women’s representation in local government mirrors the pattern observed at the national level, remaining modest at just 24% following the 2019 local elections. This lack of representation is significant as local government service is often considered a pathway to national politics. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 29

What are the most significant obstacle to women in politics ?

Answer 29

1. Despite legislative changes and policy efforts, persistent gender norms and attitudes, such as the perception of women’s primary role as caregivers and the acceptability of gender pay discrepancies, continue to hinder progress towards gender equality in Irish society and politics.
2. Women face various barriers and forms of discrimination in politics, including the gender clustering of ministerial portfolios and harassment both online and in person. Research indicates alarming rates of threats, intimidation, and abuse directed towards women politicians, including threats of physical violence and rape.
3. Traditional Roman Catholic teachings in Ireland emphasized women’s roles primarily within the household, valuing the roles of wife and mother above all else. This societal attitude marginalized women from the public sphere, shaping perceptions of women’s roles in politics. Male politicians often expressed views that reinforced these traditional gender norms, such as William T. Cosgrave’s remark suggesting women should be engaged in domestic activities like knitting rather than participating in politics.
4. Balancing a political career with childcare responsibilities poses a significant challenge for mothers in politics. Family responsibilities are cited as the most significant difficulty in pursuing a political career, particularly for representatives from constituencies outside Dublin. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 30

Discuss the candidate selection bias.

Answer 30

While research indicates no inherent bias against women in Irish elections, internal party selection processes heavily influence women’s political participation. Political parties, as gatekeepers to political office, play a crucial role in determining the extent of women’s candidacy. Despite the introduction of legislative gender quotas in 2012, selection bias in favor of men persists.

Informal practices guiding candidate selection processes often favor characteristics like localness and incumbency, which typically benefit male candidates. Women’s primary roles as caregivers limit their ability to develop local bases and networks, exacerbating their disadvantage in selection and election contests. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)

Question 31

How are women’s interests being brought to the Dail considering the low representation ?

Answer 31

Despite obstacles, efforts have been made to address gender inequality in Irish politics. Legislative reforms, including the Gender Recognition Act and provisions for redress of historical discrimination against women, reflect a growing institutional commitment to gender equality.

Women parliamentarians actively advocate for women’s interests, including reproductive rights. Despite societal changes, women’s representation in the political arena remains crucial for addressing gender-related issues effectively. Initiatives like the Irish Women’s Parliamentary Caucus and the Joint Oireachtas Committee on Gender Equality demonstrate a growing recognition of the importance of gender equality in Irish politics. (Galligan and Buckley, 2023)