Women Flashcards
What are ‘separate spheres’?
At the start of the 20th century men and women had very different lives
Changes of the position of women in the USA 1865-1917:
The Civil War (1861-65) temporarily offered opportunities for married women to work outside the home as agricultural labourers or nurses to care for wounded
Industrialisation transformed the US economy, creating many more jobs for women an changing the pattern of female employment from domestic service and agricultural labour to factory, office and shop work
Westward expansion of the USA into areas previously uninhabited by white people created job opportunities for women as cleaners, cooks, nurses, teachers and agricultural labourers.
15th Amendment to the US constitution in 1870 gave the vote to black men but not to women, angering female activists
Improvement for the position of US women during the Gilded Age:
By 1865, 29 states had passed acts protecting married women’s rights to own property and by 1887 2/3 of the states had given married women control of their earnings
By 1900, half of high school graduates were female - during this period women gained more access to higher education
By 1890s single women with a high school education could work in offices as secretaries and receptionists
Women became increasingly active in trade unions
Birth rate amongst white US women feel from 5.4 to 3.6 between 1850 and 1900
Divorce rate doubled between 1880-1900 from 1 out of 21 marriages to 1/12
Limitations to the position of US women during the Gilded Age:
“Separate spheres” idea remained dominant
1887 - 1/3 of US states had still not given married women control of their own earnings
Female employment increased but only in junior low paid roles
Number of agricultural jobs declined and working conditions were harsh
“Laissez faire” meant workers had no legal protection
Women were invariably paid less than men
By 1900, only 2% of union members were female
Women workers often suffered sexual harassment from employers
Comstock laws in 1873 banned the marketing, sale and distribution of contraceptives
Women’s activism during the Gilded Age:
Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 - can be seen as the start of the campaign for female suffrage
2 main suffragist groups, NWSA and AWSA united in 1890 to form NAWSA to campaign more effectively for the vote
Temperance activists like Frances Willard who founded the Women’s Christian Temperance Union in 1879, also campaigned on issues like female suffrage and working conditions
Jane Addams set up Hull House in Chicago in 1889 as a social centre to support the settlement of newly arrived immigrant families and campaigned tirelessly for better accommodation for them
By 1890 around 400 centres like Hull House, staffed by middle class white women, had been established across the USA
Settlement House Movement - gave women opportunities to gain positions of leadership denied to them in government or business and a chance to get involved in politics by campaigning against poverty, slum housing and child labour
When was the Feminine Mystique published?
1963
What was the Feminine Mystique about?
Betty Friedans book argued for an end to sexual discrimination, particularly in the workplace
When was Weeks v Southern Bell?
1967
What was Weeks v Southern Bell?
First successful prosecution of sexual discrimination in the workplace
When was the Executive Order 11375?
1967
What was the Executive Order 11375?
Outlawed sexual discrimination in companies working for the government
Arguments “Gilded Age” was an improvement to the position of women in the USA:
By 1865, 29 states had passed acts protecting married women’s rights to own property and by 1887 2/3 of the states had given married women control of their earnings
By 1900, half of high school graduates were female
Number of women employed in domestic service halved 1870-1900 while the number in better paid clerical work increased tenfold
Arguments “Gilded Age” was not an improvement to the position of women in the USA:
Most women in 19th century America were not politically active and women did not gain the vote nationally until 1920
Until 1890 the suffragist movement was divided between NWSA and AWSA over whether to campaign at state or federal level
“Separate Spheres” remained dominant
Female employment increased but only in junior low paid roles
When were the Comstock laws?
1873
What were the Comstock laws?
Banned the marketing, sale and distribution of contraceptives - meant that contraceptives could only be obtained on the black market, making them unaffordable for working class women
Benefits from the New Deal for women:
National Recovery Administration, created in 1933, helped women join unions - number of female trade union members rose from 265,000 to 800,000 during the 1930s, despite reduced female employment.
Social Security Act 1935 - introduced welfare benefits for poor families
Aid to Dependent Children, introduced in 1935, helped single mothers who were unable to work b/c they had to care for their children
Works Programme Administration, begun in 1935, gave work to single women
Fair Labour Standards Act 1938 set new minimum wage levels
Limitations from the New Deal for women:
New Deal started from assumption that men were the breadwinners in each family and therefore govt aid should be focussed on them
Only 7% of the jobs created by the Civilian Works Administration went to women
Despite New Deal, 42% of US families in the 1930s lived at or below subsistence level
Despite the Fair Labour Standards Act, women still earned less than men for the same work
Black and Hispanic women benefitted least from the New Deal
African American women and 1960s Feminism:
Most black women felt they suffered more b/c of their race than their gender, so they felt they had more in common with black men than with white women
For this reason black women had little involvement in the “New Feminism” of the 1960s b/c it was dominated by white middle class women like Betty Freidan
Evidence that Black Power benefitted African American women:
Ella Baker played a leading role in setting up SNCC in 1960
Played the leading role in the community activities of the Black Panther Party
2/3 of Black Panthers were women
Director of FBI, Director J Edgar Hoover, described free breakfast programmes as the “best and most influential activity going for the BPP”
Malcolm X celebrated the beauty of black women, condemning the prejudice that black women were “ugly” simply because they were black
Addressed the needs of poor black women
Evidence that Black Power didn’t benefit African American women:
Male black power activists often had blatantly sexist views
Some male Black Power activists argued that black women should not use birth control devices since having children was the main service to the black race
Kathleen Cleaver complained that in the BPP her ideas were often rejected in favour of men’s
BPP experimented with the idea of communal living and communal sexual relationships
Evidence female activism was the main reason for progress in gaining civil rights for women in the USA 1865-1992:
During progressive era, Jane Addams, Florence Kelley and the National Consumers League campaigned for reforms of health, housing and working conditions
National Association of Coloured Women campaigned to uphold the reputation of black women and against lynching and segregation
Seneca Falls Convention 1848 can be seen as the start of the campaign for female suffrage
Divisions within the women’s movement:
1869 - there was a split between the National Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) over whether they should support the 15th Amendment
Further split in 1913 when radical young women like Alice Paul started the Congressional Union to campaign more militantly for the right to vote like the Suffragettes in GB
Women were divided by class and race
Roe v Wade judgement in 1973 exposed divisions over abortion
Phyllis Schafly opposed the Equal Rights Amendment
No real agreement about what gender equality really meant
Arguments divisions within the women’s movement were not the most important factor in hindering the attainment of gender equality in the USA:
Divisions were not always permanent e.g. the NSWA and AWASA merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) in 1890
For most working class women, economic and technological changes had the most impact on their lives
Male opposition to women’s rights had a greater effect in limiting progress towards gender equality
Both employers and trade unions resisted equal pay for women
Congress passed the Comstock laws banning the circulation of information about birth control in 1873
Most states passed laws banning abortion in the late 19th century
New Deal prioritised jobs for men
American women were divided in support of the issue of gender equality in the period from 1865-1992:
Women were divided on whether they wanted equality with men or to have their differences recognised
Feminists in late 20th century were divided on pornography
Different groups campaigning at the same time had different priorities
Women were divided on whether to retain or repeal Prohibition
Differences within the suffrage movement between NSWA and AWSA
Religious, class and racial divisions
Issue over abortion
Arguments women were united in support of gender equality:
Women have always been united on issues like property rights, divorce and access to education and the professions
NSWA and AWSA merged in 1890 to campaign for the vote
Suffrage groups were sufficiently united to ensure the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920 giving women the vote
Widespread support for feminist campaigns like the ERA
Most women supported their right to choose contraception and abortion
Arguments developments in the US economy did more to advance women’s rights in the USA than any other factor:
For middle class women, economic changes have been fundamental in liberating them from the restrictions of the “separate spheres” concept
Periods of economic expansion, like the Gilded Age, the 2 World Wars and the booms which followed them, have coincided with the most important improvements in women’s rights
Economic expansion has increased women’s access to education
Periods of economic expansion have also been ones in which attitudes to fashion, marriage, sex and childbirth have been transformed
Arguments other factors did more to advance women’s rights in the USA than the US economy:
Economic expansion did not significantly increase the educational opportunities open to women until after WW2
2 World Wars expanded women’s opportunities much more quickly than general economic growth
Role of federal legislation was crucial, especially female suffrage 1919-20 and the Equal Pay and Civil Rights Act 1963-64
Sustained female activism was necessary for change to be achieved
Social attitudes changes
Took inspiration by the Black Civil Rights movement
Arguments reasons for opposition to gender equality remained the same:
“Separate spheres” idea was never completely overthrown, men continued to dominate politics, business
Concessions to women often owed more to pragmatic, self interested considerations than a principled belief in women’s rights
Margaret Sanger’s campaign for birth control started as early as 1911 but not until 1973 (Roe v Wade) was it first successful
Arguments reasons for opposition to gender equality changed over time:
There was a general development towards greater gender equality, with opposition receding as the “separate spheres” idea had been steadily eroded
Opposition to female equality was further eroded after WW2 by the growing progress of civil rights for other groups
What was passed in 1873?
Comstock Laws passed (banning contraception)
What happened in 1890?
NWSA and AWSA merged to form NAWSA
What happened in 1911?
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire
Margaret Sanger campaign for Birth Control
What happened in 1920?
Women gained the vote and implementation of Prohibition
What happened in 1923?
Campaign for ERA started
First legal birth control clinic set up
What happened in 1933?
Start of the New Deal
Frances Perkins became first female US cabinet
What happened in 1944?
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act
What happened in 1946?
Spock’s “Common Sense Book of Baby and Child care” published
What happened in 1963?
Publication of the “Feminine Mystique”
Passage of Equal Pay Act
What happened in 1964?
Civil Rights Act - Banned gender discrimination
What happened in 1965?
Voting Rights Act passed
Constitutional Right to contraception
What happened in 1966?
NOW formed
What happened in 1972?
Schafly set up National Committee to stop the ERA
What happened in 1973?
Roe v Wade
What happened in 1974?
First female state governor elected in her own right
What happened in 1982?
ERA lapsed
Developments between 1900-17:
The number of women working in teaching or clerical occupations increased from 950,000 to 3.4 million
Birth control campaigner Margaret Sanger was prosecuted under the Comstock Laws in 1916 for distributing contraceptive info through the post
When was the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire?
March 25, 1911
What was the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire?
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire in Manhattan, New York was the deadliest industrial disaster in the history of the city
Fire caused the deaths of 146 garment workers - 123 women and 23 men died from the fire
Most of the victims were recent Jewish and Italian immigrant women aged 16 to 23
Owners had locked the doors to the stairwells and exists, a then, common practice to prevent workers from taking unauthorised breaks and to reduce theft - many of the workers who could not escape from the burning building simply jumped from the high windows
What happened after the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire?
The fire led to legislation requiring improved factory safety standards and helped spur the growth of the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, which fought for better working conditions for sweatshop workers
60 laws in the next 2 years were passed
Fire inspired Frances Perkins to go into politics, first female politician
Women’s activism during the progressive era (1895-1920):
1899 - National Consumers’ League was set up under the leadership of Frances Kelley to campaign for reforms of health, housing and working conditions including an 8 hour day, higher pay for female workers and better facilities for mothers and children
National Association of Coloured Women (founded in 1896) campaigned to uphold the reputation of black women and against lynching and segregation. By 1918, it had 300,000 members
Campaign groups like the NWSA and AWSA, which merged to form the NAWSA in 1890, agitated for female suffrage, as did the more radical Alice Paul and the National Women’s Party which she founded in 1917
Margaret Sanger coined the term “birth control” and campaigned for it from 1929 onwards
Evidence that the campaign for women’s suffrage was effective:
Fourteenth Amendment guaranteed equal rights
Federal Political structure gave women more opportunities for women to gain rights. The leader of NAWSA, Carrie Chapman Catt, insisted that promise of suffrage would induce women to support the war effort wholeheartedly, and President Wilson agreed
20 states, 1880-1900 gave widowed mothers the vote
Women gained the vote in several states before the federal rule in 1920 such as Wyoming 1869
Evidence that the campaign for women’s suffrage did not impact the campaign:
By 1900, the suffragists had made little impact as there was not complete agreement about which types of women should be eligible to vote
There were groups of women opposed to suffrage, in 1911, the National Association Opposed to Women Suffrage
By 1912, out of 33 states where women tried to gain the vote - only successful in 2
Women themselves did not take advantage of the vote: turnout in the elections of 1920 was low
Reasons why the Suffrage movement was successful:
Some western states, of which Wyoming in 1869 was the first, gave women the vote in the hope of attracting female migrants rather than in response to suffragist campaigns
Women’s participation in the war effort 1917-18 arguably did more to achieve success than suffragist activity, especially as radicals like Alice Paul actually discredited the cause by opposing the war. 5 states gave women the vote during the war
Support of prohibitionist male politicians who knew that more women would vote for Prohibition than men also helped
Support of the President and Congress were obviously crucial
Who ran NAWSA?
Susan B Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Who ran AWSA?
Lucy Stone
What happened politically before WW1?
Starting with Wyoming 1869, 8 states gave women vote before WW1
Female support for prohibition increased support for women’s suffrage
Impact of the Civil War:
The Civil War (1861-65) temporarily offered opportunities for married women to work outside the home as agricultural labourers or nurses to care for wounded
Impact of Westwards Expansion:
Westward expansion of the USA into areas previously uninhabited by white people created job opportunities for women as cleaners, cooks, nurses, teachers and agricultural labourers.
Impact of Industrialisation:
Industrialisation transformed the US economy, creating many more jobs for women an changing the pattern of female employment from domestic service and agricultural labour to factory, office and shop work
Examples of Early Activism:
Hull House
Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)
NAWSA
NCL
National Association of Coloured Women (NACW)
Key figures in the Gilded Age:
Jane Addams - Hull House + Settlement House Movement
Susan B. Anthony + Elizabeth S. Stanton - ran NAWSA
Alice Paul - Founded National Women’s Party = 1913
Political Developments:
19th Amendment (1920) gave women the vote
Civil Rights Act (1964)
Roe v Wade (1973)
Main Overall Developments of the Gilded Age:
Industrialisation
Railway Developments
Massive immigration from Europe
Main social issues hotly debated at this time were:
Prohibition of the sale of alcohol
Women’s right to vote
Provision of accommodation, welfare + cultural facilities for immigrants from Europe to enable them to integrate into US Society
Workers’ rights, including working hours + child labour
Suppression of black civil rights in the South in terms of voting rights, segregation, lynching
Arguments the impact of WW1 1917-18 was positive on the position of US Women:
WW1 gave women unprecedented employment opportunities + participation in the war effort raised their public profile
Women replaced men as drivers, postmen etc.
Women served in the Army Nurse Corps + the Red Cross; in total 11,000 women worked for the US Navy as nurses or office workers
Took over from enlisted men the management of farms + small businesses
Found new job opportunities in war industries + govt. offices as the govt. bureaucracy expanded to administer the war effort
New jobs created by the war were generally better paid than women’s previous jobs
Women’s activism in raising money + supplies for soldiers strengthened the case for female suffrage
Arguments the impact of WW1 1917-18 was negative on the position of US Women:
Job opportunities mainly affected single rather than married women
WW2 had a bigger impact than WW1 b/c it lasted longer
In both Wars women were paid less than men for the same work
Neither world war was that crucial b/c in both cases the gains for women were temporary
Arguments gaining the vote in 1920 was the most important turning point in the campaign for gender equality:
Success in 1920 was due to decades of female activism dating back to 1848 + inspired the much greater freedom women enjoyed thereafter
Led to much greater female participation in politics: by 1940 234 women were members of state legislatures
Passage of prohibition in at least 10 states in 1919 was influenced by politicians’ belief that supporting it would win them female votes
Frances Perkins became chairmen of the Industrial Board of New York in 1924 + used this position to secure a reduction in the working week for women
Mary McLeod Bethune a black civil rights activist, always insisted on using her vote despite intimidation from the KKK, she joined FDRs administration in 1936
Radical feminists like Alice Paul campaigned for an Equal Rights Amendment from 1923 onwards
Women’s Bureau was established in the Department of Labour in 1920
Shepherd-Towner Act in 1921 made funds available for education on maternity + infant health
Legislation was passed to ban child labour + limit female working hours to 8 per day
Generated a general atmosphere in which women gained more freedom
Partly due to Perkins, the New Deal helped women
Arguments gaining the vote in 1920 was not the most important turning point in the campaign for gender equality:
20 of the 48 US states had already given women the vote before 1920 so it wasn’t that big a turning point
Vote did not lead to many women holding political office
Many of the achievements were short-lived: child labour + working hours legislation was repealed as early as 1922 + the funding under the Shepherd-Towner Act ended in 1929
Women’s Bureau had little impact b/c of resistance from both employers + trade unions
Passage of Prohibition probably owed more to the influence of religious fundamentalism than to women’s activism
Most women seem to have voted as their husbands did or took little interest in politics anyway
Women were divided about issues like Prohibition + the Equal Rights Amendment
Most black women, especially in the South, could not effectively exercise their right to vote until the Voting Rights Act in 1965
Immigrant + NA women were less likely to vote
Suffrage was a much bigger issue for middle class than working class women, for whom employment rights were more important
Liberation which women enjoyed in the 1920s could be attributed to WW1 rather than gaining the vote
Main events for the position of women in the USA 1920-33:
WW1 ended in 1918
1919 - the 18th Amendment to the US Constitution prohibiting the sale, import, transport + manufacture of alcoholic drink was ratified by 36 states, leading to its introduction in 1920. Prohibition remained in force until its repeal in 1933
In 1920 - 19th Amendment giving women the vote was ratified by 36 states
USA had 12 years of Republican government 1921-33, resulting in prohibitionist, pro-business + anti-immigrant policies
After WW1, economy boomed until the Wall Street Crash in 1929
FDR was elected in November 1932 + took office in January 1933, the First Democratic President since Wilson
Evidence that women influenced the passage of Prohibition:
Ratification of Prohibition in 1919 was a triumph for women who had actively campaigned for it since the formation of the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in 1874
Prohibition could be presented as a women’s issue b/c they could claim to be protecting their homes + children from the evil of drunkenness
Women played a leading role in holding street protests, handing out leaflets in saloons, holding prayer meetings + vigils ect
In at least 10 states the passage of Prohibition was influenced by the desire of male politicians to attract female votes + Congress voted for the Female Suffrage partly b/c they knew that women were more likely than men to vote for prohibition
Frances Willard provided inspiring leadership until her death in 1898, enhancing the appeal of the movement with an emotive image + a uniting purpose
Evidence that women influenced the repeal of prohibition:
Case for repeal could be seen as a woman’s image. As Pauline Sabin put it, “Today, in any speakeasy in the US you can find boys + girls in their teens drinking liquor + mothers of this country feel something must be done to protect their children”
Sabin formed the WONPR (Women’s Organisation For National Prohibition Reform) in 1929 to campaign for reform. By 1931, it had 1.5 million members + was the biggest anti-Prohibition organisation
The WONPR had effective leadership, not just the charismatic + well connected Sabin himself but in general its most active members were middle or upper class with good political connections, often through their husbands
WONPR tactics were effective: it campaigned hardest in areas like the South where support for Prohibition was strongest + it was broad based, appealing to both Democrats, Republicans, Catholic + Protestants
Arguments women didn’t influence the passage + repeal of prohibition:
Most influential Prohibition pressure group, the Anti-Saloon League, was male dominated
Prohibition was passed for a variety of reasons including the strength of Protestant fundamentalism in the USA, Nativism and the failure of the opponents of Prohibition to organise an effective campaign against it
Prohibition would have been repealed even without female activism b/c of its clear failure to reduce alcohol consumption, the rise of organised crime which resulted from it + the economic benefits of taxing alcohol if it was legalised
Election of a Democrat President in 1932 (Prohibition being a Republican policy) also lead to repeal in 1933
Women were divided about Prohibition
Who were the “Flappers”?
“Flappers” were seemingly more independent + emancipated younger women of the 1920s going against ‘Victorian Norms’, wearing their skirts short + cutting their hair short - symbolic of women being more like men
Limitations of the Flapper Era:
Only white middle class urban women could afford the Flapper lifestyle
Sexual Revolution of the flapper era encountered some problems + conflicts among women. They seemingly had the freedom to celebrate their sexuality + independence, but faced massive social disapproval if they were promiscuous or gave birth to illegitimate children, while the men who fathered the children did not
Not got widespread + reliable control over their bodies until after 1945 and even then they faced problems
Comstock Laws limited access to contraception + information about it as it was judged to be obscene
To what extent did women suffer as a result of the depression 1929-33?
By 1933, 2 million US women were unemployed
Fact that so many men were now unemployed greatly increased hostility to the idea of women working: opinion poll in 1936 suggested that 82% of Americans disapproved of women working
26 states tried to ban married women from working but this was declared as unconstitutional
Arguments WW2 1941-45 did transform the position of US women:
WW2 had a bigger effect than WW1 b/c it lasted longer
By 1945, 5 million more US women worked than in 1940 + many of these were married
Lanham Act in 1940 + the Servicemen’s Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided fed gov funding of day care facilities to enables mothers to engage in war work
350,000 women joined the US armed forces
In 1945, around 75% women wanted to continue working
Married women became more independent + assertive, resulting in the divorce rate rising by a factor of 1:8:1 1940-60
Trend towards more women working continued after the war: by 1960 there was twice as many working women as in 1940
Arguments WW2 1941-45 did not transform the position of US women:
Still a general expectation, reflected in the media, that the change in women’s role was temporary + essentially in a supportive role to their husbands + sons
Opinion poll during the war showed that most Americans did not think women working was fundamentally a good idea
Publicly funded provision of day care facilities was gradually withdrawn as the war came to an end until by 1946 only 3 states were offered it
After WW2 there was a clear attempt by the media to bring back the “separate spheres” idea
Dr Benjamin Spock’s “Common Sense Book of Baby + Child Care”, published in 1946, sold over 23 million copies over the next 30 years, showing the return of women to their traditional childcare role after the war
Policy of the fed gov to open up higher education + professional opportunities to ex-servicemen in preference to women. The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act 1944 led to a much greater increase in number of men going to college or uni than women
The 1950s:
TV, movies and advertising in the 1950s promoted conformity + stereotypes
“Ideal women” was a housewife + mother
Positive developments to the Position of women in the 1950s:
For unmarried women, opportunities in the service economy increased. In the 1950s the numbers of jobs in services, many of them traditionally female dominated, overtook the number of jobs in manufacturing industry continued to expand
The “Space Race” with the USSR following the successful launch of the Soviet Sputnik Satellite in 1957 led to an expansion of higher education in an attempt to “catch up” with the USSR which benefitted women as well as men
Negative developments towards the position of women in the 1950s:
Dr Benjamin Spock’s “Common Sense Book of Baby + Child Care”, published in 1946, emphasised the primary responsibility of the mother in bringing up children
Although female employment expanded, most worked in low skilled + low paid jobs
In 1950 the median age at which women married dropped to only just over 20 + the average number of children per family rose from 3.1 to 3.8 1950-57
Women were generally less engaged in politics in the 1945-60 period than earlier
The “Feminine Mystique”:
Betty Friedan’s book “The Feminine Mystique” in 1963 condemned the “feminine mystique” which confined women to the domestic role in the 1945-60 period + called for a “new life plan” which would enable them to fulfil their academic + career potential
NOW:
In 1966 Friedan + other activists formed the National Organisation for Women (NOW) to press for equality by all the available means of protest, like lobbying Congress, filling lawsuits against discrimination + trying to influence public opinion
Under Friedan’s leadership (1966-70) NOW gained widespread publicity in 1968 through stunts like the “Burial of True Womanhood” + the Public burning of bras + high heeled shoes on the grounds that they were distorting women’s appearance to please men
In 1968, radical feminists crowned a sheep at the “Miss World” competition as a protest against the degradation of such women involved in the contest
Betty Freidan:
Wrote the “Feminine Mystique” in 1963
Formed NOW (National Organisation for Women) in 1966
Friedan led NOW (1966-70)
Impact of Feminist Ideas:
Feminist groups were often highly effective at local level, running rape crisis centres, self defence classes, providing contraception for health centres for women and girls
In 1970, a Women’s Strike for Equality brought 1,000s of women onto the streets of New York, united moderate + radical feminists + attracted national media coverage from both TV + Newspapers
By 1969, married women could get credit in their own name as opposed to their husband’s
Popular Culture in the 1970s increasingly reflected the influence of feminist ideas
Young women’s attitudes were changing rapidly: the % of girls aged 15-19 who wanted to be housewives by the time they were 35 declined from 65% to only 25% 1968-75
By 1986, 56% of US women considered themselves to be feminists
As time went on the feminist movement became more sensitive towards ethnic minority women + the discrimination they suffered on both racial + gender grounds
Successes of ‘New Feminism’ on Employment + Education:
In 1965, the fed gov set up the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission to enforce the 1963 Equal Pay Act + the 1964 Civil Rights Act
Fed gov funding was targeted at employers who did not discriminate in terms of pay and other issues
By the early 1970s, laws against gender discrimination + stereotyping had opened up some jobs for women which had previously been reserved for men
Opening of all male colleges to women enhanced their higher education opportunities - by early 1980s nearly 1/2 of graduates were women
NOW used legal action to secure equal rights for women in traditionally male occupations
Successes of ‘New Feminism’ on Birth Control:
Constitutional Right of married couples to use contraception was established by the Supreme Court in 1965 + extended to unmarried couples in 1972
By the 1970s women were marrying later + having fewer children, giving them more access to higher education + a professional career
Introduction of the contraception pill in the 1960s
Although feminists were slow to recognise the importance of the contraceptive pill they did act as a pressure group to bring about research modifications to make it safer from the late 1960s onwards
Sucesses of ‘New Feminism’ on Politics:
Number of congressmen nearly quadrupled
Shirley Chisholm became the first black congresswoman in 1968 + the first to campaign to become President in 1972
First female state governor (Ella Grosso) was elected in New Hampshire 1974
By 1992, 19 of the USA’s biggest cities had female mayors
Failures of New Feminist ideas:
Even in 1968, 65% of girls aged 15-19 wanted to be housewives by the age of 15
Fragmentation of the feminist movement weakened its impact
Radical feminism put men off: even by 1990 only 40% of US men supported gender equality
Abortion Controversy following Roe v Wade in 1973 created an anti-feminist backlash + women themselves were divided over the issue
Failures of employment + education:
Progress in women getting high status, well paid jobs was slow despite their increasing educational achievements b/c of persistent male prejudice
Even after 1969 women had still not gained equal pay for the same work
In the 1970s, less than 5% of US managers were women
Failures of Birth Control:
Growing focus of feminists on the abortion issue divided women, provoking the anti-feminist backlash among women with more conservative views like Phyllis Schafly
Failures of Politics:
In 1970 only 2% of congressmen were men
Until 1992, there were never more than 2 female senators
Feminist groups were most effective at local level + had a limited impact on national politics
The Roe v Wade judgment 1973:
US politicians were slow to recognise women’s right to control their own bodies; their legal right to contraception was not fully acknowledged until 1972
Most states had laws dating back to the 19th century which banned abortion except in cases where the woman’s life was in danger
Abortion was a state matter so the Federal Government + Congress could not legislate on it
Significance of Roe v Wade:
Supreme Court decided not just in Roe’s favour but the same right applied to all women on the basis that it was covered by the right to privacy + freedom conferred by the 14th Amendment to the US Constitution which guaranteed the civil rights of all US Citizens regardless of race or gender
Campaign for ERA:
Started in 1920 with the 19th Amendment which gave women the vote
Radical wing of the women’s suffrage movement, led by Alice Paul, believed that the vote on its own would not guarantee women equal rights + that they needed an Equal Rights Amendment to guarantee their rights across the board
Feminists proposed an ERA to Congress repeatedly from 1923 onwards
ERA was opposed by:
Conservatives who still believed women’s natural role was as housewives + mothers
Trade Unions who feared that giving women equal employment rights would threaten male jobs
Some feminists who believed that the ERA would lead to women being treated as if they were the same as men + therefore undermine gender specific protection
Could also be argued that equal rights for women were already guaranteed by the 14th Amendment of 1868 + the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972
Phyllis Schafly reacted to the passage of the ERA in 1972 by setting up the National Committee to stop ERA. She revived the traditional “separate spheres” idea
There were specific concerns about what the ERA might lead to:
Women might be subject to military service
They might have to use multisex toilets
Might lose their protection from heavy labour
Might remove the obligation of divorced men to provide for their children
Outcome of the campaign for ERA:
Congress passed the ERA in 1972 but it required ratification by 3/4 of the states before it could be implemented as a constitutional amendment
