Trade Unions And Labour Rights Flashcards
What is a trade union?
Are a means to represent a profession. It is when workers can “collectively bargain” with their employers in order to achieve aims relating to factors such as pay, working conditions ect.
What is the difference between union and labour rights?
Union rights are the rights of workers as a whole
Labour rights are the rights of the individual worker
What was the Haymarket Affair?
May 1886 strikers from the McCormick Harvester Plant in Chicago clashed with police leading to deaths of four workers
Strike had been part of a national campaign for an eight hour working day
When was the Haymarket Affair?
May 1886
Who was blamed for the Haymarket Affair?
Bombing blamed on German anarchists and eight were arrested
Consequences of the Haymarket Affair:
Case fed into a growing national resentment towards foreign immigrants
Turned public opinion against labour unions that were thought to be linked to this foreign conspiracy
Haymarket affair is significant for two key reasons:
Demonstrated how violently the authorities were when reacting to strikes and union protests
When was the Homestead Strike?
1892
What was the Homestead Strike?
Strike took place at the Homestead Steel Work in Pennsylvania from 30th June and lasted 143 days
Organised by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel workers (AA) and the Carnegie Steel Company
The Homestead Strike damaged progress towards the recognition of labour and union rights for a number of reasons:
AA was left almost bankrupt and broken as a force in the labour movement
Drink prevented new AA branches forming in the Homestead plant and Carnegie Steel general, remained non-Union for 40 years
By 1900, not a single steel plant in Pennsylvania remained unionised
AA membership fell from 24,000 in 1891 to 6,300 in 1909
What was the Haymarket Affair?
May 1886 strikers from the McCormick Harvester Plant in Chicago clashed with police leading to deaths of four workers
Strike had been part of a national campaign for an eight-hour working day
When was the Haymarket Affair?
May 1886
Who was blamed for the Haymarket Affair?
Bombing blamed on German anarchists and eight were arrested
Consequences of the Haymarket Affair:
Case fed into a growing national resentment towards foreign immigrants
Turned public opinion against labour unions that were thought to be linked to this foreign conspiracy
Haymarket Affair is significant for two key reasons:
Demonstrated how violently the authorities were when reacting to strikes and union protests
Demonstrated the tension that existed in the USA at the end of the 19th Century towards the increasing flow of immigrants
When was the Homestead Strike?
1892
What was the Homestead Strike?
Strike took place at the Homestead Steel Work in Pennsylvania from 30th June and lasted 143 days
Organised by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) and the Carnegie Steel Company.
The Homestead Strike damaged progress towards the recognition of labour and union rights for a number of reasons:
AA was left almost bankrupt and broken as a force in the labour movement
Frick prevented new AA branches forming in the Homestead plant and Carnegie Steel general, remained non-union for 40 years
By 1900, not a single steel plant in Pennsylvania remained unionised
AA membership fell from 24,000 in 1891 to 6,300 in 1909
When was the Pullman strike?
May 11, 1894
What was the Pullman strike?
Nationwide railroad strike in the US on May 11, 1894
Significant progress in the growth on Union and Labour rights was made between 1865 and 1914:
1900 = 500,000 trade union members. 1910 = 2 million members. 1920 = 5 million
Unions, particularly the AFL had some success applying pressure to local elections and in 1912 to the Presidential election - Woodrow Wilson was elected and created a new department of Labour
Limited labour and union rights by 1914:
Unions represented only 20% of the non-agricultural workforce
Many industries, such as steel and car manufacturing, did not have unions
Although there were often negotiations between employers and unions, many of the unions were not legally recognised
Workers were divided by ethnicity, gender and level of skill - divisions were exploited by workers
Gains that had been made were more often limited to white, male, skilled workers
Lack of progress can be attributed to a range of factors throughout the gilded age:
Divisions within the workforce of skilled and unskilled labour
Actions of businessmen and employers
Immigration and racial tensions
Militancy within the labour unions
Actions of state and federal authorities
What were the main issues and problems in the workplace that would have encouraged workers to join unions in the Gilded Age?
Pay Cuts
Working hours
Safety at work
Wages
Why did the adoption of laissez-faire economic policies by the federal government make it more difficult for workers to develop unions and improve their labour rights in the Gilded Age?
“Hands off” approach gave employers independence to deal with strikes aggressively. This made it more difficult for labour rights to improve as they lacked support from the government.
How did the rise of ‘nativism’ in the USA undermine the development of trade unions?
Rise of ‘nativism’ in the USA undermined the development of trade unions as it increased immigration and racial tensions within trade unions, as it increased a growing national sense of resentment towards foreign immigrants from WASPs
For example, Haymarket Affair and Homestead Strike, weakened unions due to association with European anarchists
What would unions need to change or do differently to be more successful after 1914?
Remain united and appeal to the Federal government
Be more appreciative of public opinion
Influence politics
Gilded Age did improve the position of workers and unions:
Wages rose dramatically with an increase of 60% for some skilled workers
American industry overtook that of Britain to become the largest producer in the world
Unions such as the Knights of Labour saw a considerable increase in membership - from 20,000 in 1881 to 700,000 by 1886
AFL formed in 1886 and was the first successful national labour federation - aimed to link all unions together
Unions were able to extend their power into politics at both local and national level
Sickness clubs were formed
Gilded Age did not improve the position of workers and unions:
Period of growing inequality and poverty for the workforce - 2% of the population owned 30% of the wealth
Workers had few rights
Increase in mechanisation in the economy decreased the demand for skilled labour whilst the wages of unskilled labour were around 30% of those of skilled workers
Number of violent strikes damaged the reputations of unions
Governments laissez-faire approach to the economy meant that workers were denied protective legislation
Increase in industrialisation in the USA:
Between 1860 and 1900 number of industrial workers increased from 885,000 to 3.2 million
Production moved increasingly from skilled workshops to factory production lines
Large workforce of semi and unskilled workers developed - these workers had no representation in the workplace
How had the US Civil War encouraged industrialisation?
Gave massive contracts to industrial businesses
Improved communications by rail and telegraph
Improved financial system by introducing national currency
Population of the US grew from 40 million in 1870 to … in 1900?
76 million
What caused much growth between 1870 and 1900?
Immigration - accounted for a third
What did the federal government do to aid industrial growth after 1865?
High tariffs, especially on Steel
Supreme Court was pro business
Granted land to rail companies
Free trade area within America
Gained greater land from NA
Why was 1913 a significant year in American industrialisation?
Produced 1/3 of the worlds industrial output
How did the growth of the railways contribute to industrialisation?
Allowed national brands to grow by creating an integrated market
Created time zones
Increased job opportunities
Why was the average standard of living for an American worker “among the highest in the world”?
Industrial competition reduced prices
Why were conditions poor for workers?
No pensions - lack of protection and rights
No compensation - many injuries due to conditions
On average, 35,000 workers died each year at work, most in the world
Boom and bust cycle with depressions created job insecurities
Long working hours, 60 hours a week
What was the name of the first national worker’s union?
The Knights of Labour
What kind of workers were members of the American Federation of Labour?
10 % of members were iron and steel workers - generally skilled white men
What did unions want the US to do?
Imagine freedom more broadly
Argue for everyone to enjoy freedom there had to be more equality
Knights of Labour:
Largest and one of the most important American labour organisation of the 1880s.
What were the aims of the Knights of Labour?
Promoted the social and cultural uplift of the workingman, rejected socialism and anarchism, demanded the eight hour day, and promoted the producers ethic of republicanism
Successes of the Knights of labour:
Successful strike by the Knights against Jay Gould’s south-western railroad system in 1884 brought a flood of new members
Failures of the Knights of Labour:
Bomb explosion at a workers rally at Haymarket square, on May 4th triggered a national wave of arrests and repression.
Labour activism of every kind suffered a setback, and the Knights were particularly, though unfairly, singled out for blame
By 1900, virtually non-existent
When was the Knights of Labour founded:
Founded by Uriah Stephens on December 28, 1869
Reached 28,000 members in 1880 which then jumped to 100,000 in 1884.
By 1886, 20% of all workers were affiliated with the KOL, reaching nearly 800,000 members
Most important leader was Terence Powderly
When was the American Federation of Labour founded?
Founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers
Who were members of the American Federation of Labour?
Only recruited skilled workers, particularly white men, not very inclusive
What were the aims of the American Federation of Labour?
Focussed on practical, “bread and butter” issues - less political and more conservative
Wanted higher wages
Better working conditions
Sick pay
What methods did the American Federation of Labour use?
Used methods such as collective bargaining and strikes - took part in over 20,000 strikes and predominantly achieved their aims
Successes of the American Federation of Labour:
Successful as represented much needed skilled labour
In 1904, 1.7 million members, rising to over 4 million in 1920
More moderate union therefore had greater understanding with the federal government
Largest membership and were successful with strikes
Failures of the American Federation of Labour:
Hostile towards immigrants, particularly Chinese immigrants
When were the Industrial Workers of the World founded?
Founded in Chicago, July 1905, by William D Hayward (from the miners union)
Why were the Industrial Workers of the World Founded?
As a response to more of the economy being controlled by big corporations
What were the aims of the Industrial Workers of World?
Promoted worker solidarity to overthrow capitalists
Politically motivated by socialist views thus were a radical union
Methods of the Industrial Workers of World:
More militant organisation and had a reputation for violence, creating hostility from the employers towards trade unions
Also, due to tactics were banned in many states
Who were members of the Industrial Workers of the World:
Particularly appealed to unskilled workers and immigrants, for example had a Finnish newspaper.
Around 100,000 members in 1912 but plummeted to 30,000 in 1919, as seen as unpatriotic following the war
What do reactions of employers and the federal government to unions reveal?
Unsympathetic to causes thus prepared to enforce violence.
Violence came from government, employers and unions
Impact of WW1 on workers:
Generally argued that during WW1, the position of workers improved in the USA.
American industry experienced a boom in demand as there was greater need to produce textiles, uniforms, steel and munitions.
Between 1914 and 1918, factory production in the US increased by 35%
Prices rose but wages increased by 20% meaning that workers’ standard of living remained high
Government attitude during WW1:
Signs of a more sympathetic and cooperative attitude from the Federal Government towards labour and union rights
In 1918, Woodrow Wilson established the National War Labour Board (NWLB) which was designed to settle disputes between workers and employers without having to resort to strikes that would slow down wartime production.
The board helped to settle over 1,000 disputes and negotiated an eight-hour working day in return for a no-strike policy from unions and workers
What impact did WW1 have on unions:
Union membership increased from 2.7 million in 1916 to 5 million by 1920
What progress was made in the development of labour and union rights during the 1920s:
During the 1920s real wages increased and unemployment fell
Workers also had access for the first time to mass produced consumer goods e.g. Cars and cookers
With these developments, many of the causes of industrial unrest declined
What was welfare capitalism?
Policy followed by employers of offering workers improved working conditions and benefits such as pensions in return for the creation of unions which were under the control of employers.
Workers could meet with employers to discuss working conditions but could not negotiate on wages or call strikes.
What were “yellow dog contracts”?
Contracts that workers were made to sign that prevented them from joining a union
How significant a development for American workers was the rise of ‘welfare capitalism’ in the 1920s?
‘Welfare Capitalism’ was good for Fords employers but most workers did not benefit to the same extent
Was an improvement for workers as unions were weak
Wages rose as a result of the 1920s boom yet not in terms of profits - boom was short lived, ending with the Wall St Crash in 1929
Unskilled, women, immigrants and ethnic minorities benefitted least from ‘welfare capitalism’
After WW1 what was African American involvement in unions like?
AA involvement in unions was limited
AFL did not allow AA to join its union in the 1920s - Discouraged many from joining unions or actively campaigning on working rights
Labour and Union rights during the Great Depression and the New Deal:
Unemployment increased from 3% in 1929 to 25% by 1933
13 million people were unemployed in 1933
US GDP feel from $103.6 billion in 1929 to $56.4 billion in 1933
Since the beginning of depression around 15% of people’s life savings had been lost
When was the National Recovery Act?
1933
When was the National Labour Relations Act (The Wagner Act)?
1935
What were the aims of the National Recovery Act?
Aimed to improve relations between workers and employers by agreeing codes of practice on production levels, wages, working hours, prices and union rights.
Who set the aims of the National Recovery Act?
Aims set by the Federal Government and accepted by employers when they joined the NRA
What was the NIRA?
The National Industry Recovery Act
Established the National Recovery Administration (NRA)
What was stated in the NIRA?
Stated that workers should have the right to organise unions and bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing and that no one should be banned from joining an independent union
What was membership of the National Recovery Act?
Membership of the NRA was voluntary
By 1934, 557 codes had been agreed by joining companies, covering some 23 million workers
Employers who joined were allowed to display the Blue Eagle of the NRA in their window
What impact did the NRA have?
An example of the impact of the NRA was the coal industry
Joined in September 1933 and miners received considerable gains in pay and conditions
Membership of the United Mine Workers increased from 100,000 to 300,000
What did the National Labour Relations Act (The Wagner Act) do?
Recognised the right of workers to elect their own representatives to take part in collective bargaining with employers
Gave workers the rights to join unions and bargain collectively through their chosen representatives
Banned employers use of spies and blacklisting
Set up a five-man National Labour Relations Board (NLRB) which could bargain on behalf of workers and stop companies blacklisting or creating company unions
What was the aim of the NLR (Wagner Act)?
Wagner’s aim had been to regulate and reduce labour disputes by providing a structure of collective bargaining that would reduce the need for strikes or violence between employers and their workers
When was the NIRA declared constitutional?
Declared constitutional by the Supreme Court in 1937
Arguments the New Deal was a turning point for labour and union rights:
NRA and Wagner Act marked a change in government attitude towards labour and union rights from one of laissez faire or support for employers, to government support and recognition
By July 1933, half of the main ten US industries had joined the NRA
By 1934, 557 codes had been agreed by companies joining the NRA, covering some 23 million workers
Wagner recognised rights of workers to form unions and to collectively bargain with their employers
New Deal Legislation encouraged a growth in membership of trade unions, from 3.7 million in 1933 to 9 million in 1938
Arguments the New Deal was not a turning point for labour and union rights:
NRA and its codes of practice were voluntary and employers such as Henry Ford refused to sign up continuing their policies of welfare capitalism instead.
Lower skilled and agricultural workers did not generally benefit as much from the New Deal as skilled workers
Several groups continued to face unequal rights in the workplace
Number of women’s unions were formed but the New Deal legislation upheld the pay gap between men and women
Reasons for the backlash against labour and union rights after 1945:
After 1945 many in congress became concerned by the growing power of unions and moved to limit their powers and defend the rights of employers.
Republican Party gained control of Congress in 1946 and had a more anti-union policy
Growing Cold War tensions also affected unions who were associated with left-wing politics and communism
When was the Taft-Hartley Act?
1947
What did the Taft-Hartley Act mark?
A decline in labour and union rights
What were “blue collar” jobs?
Factory work
What were “white collar” jobs?
Managerial and office work
When was the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) formed?
1960
What was the aim of Students for a Democratic Society?
Aimed to challenge the culture of big businesses and government power, and promote individualism and freedom
When was the Social Security Act?
1965
What was the Social Security Act?
Provided state-funded healthcare to all Americans who received state welfare
What was the California Agricultural Labour Relations Act passed?
Gave agricultural unions legal rights including UFW
When was the PATCO strike?
1981
What was the PATCO strike?
Decisive defeat for union power
Define ‘Trade Union Rights’:
Those rights that apply to trade unions e.g. legal status, recognition, conduct of members, collective bargaining etc
Define ‘Labour Rights’:
Those rights that apply to all workers (whether in a union or not) e.g. rights over pay, conditions, legal productions
Examples when more progress was being made in terms of labour rights than union rights:
‘The New Frontier’ and ‘Great Society’ reforms in the 1960s
Examples when unions gained rights that were not shared by all workers
The Wagner Act - allowed collective bargaining of unions yet excluded agricultural workers
To what extent was the Gilded Age an era of positive development for union and labour rights?
Increase in the number of trade unions and affiliations in this period - KOL 1869, AFL 1886, IWW 1905
Union membership increased during this period - the KOL went from 20,000 members in 1881 to 700,000 in 1886
AFL was the first successful National Labour Federation. Some businesses were willing to work with it and allow negotiations between employers + workers
Wages, particularly those of skilled labour increased in this period, by 60%
To what extent was the Gilded Age an era of negative development for union and labour rights?
Trade unions were not legally recognised in this period and relied on individual employers for any rights
Employers tended to be hostile towards unions - intimidation would be used to prevent workers from joining and force used to break strikes e.g. Homestead
Employers more generally in this period did not prioritise the conditions and pay of their workers. Age of rapid industrialisation which encouraged profit first and lead to ‘Robber Barons’ e.g. Rockefeller and Carnegie who exploited workers
Federal government supported employers over unions -Pullman Strike 1894- and followed a policy of laisses faire economics
Unions themselves were divided in terms of skill level, nationality, race and gender. Some also failed militant tactics (Haymarket 1886) that undermined the pursuit of labour rights
To what extent was the New Deal an era of positive development for union and labour rights?
The National Recovery Administration (NRA 1933) - brought improvements in working conditions and treatment by employers
The National Labour Relations Act (Wagner Act, 1935) - The right of workers to form unions and to collectively bargain was guaranteed
Growth in union membership - 3.7 million in 1933 to 9 million in 1938 - as unions were established and sought to collectively bargain with employers
Fair Labour Standards Act (1938) - created a minimum weekly wage for industrial workers of $25
Creation of Alphabet Agencies more generally provided work for millions of unemployed
Role of Federal Government changed dramatically during the New Deal from one of laissez faire to one of involvement and support for unions
When was the National Recovery Administration founded?
1933
What was the National Recovery Administration (NRA)?
Brought improvements in working conditions and treatment for employers
Example that the NRA was a successful development:
By 1934, 557 codes had been agreed by companies joining the NRA covering 23 million workers
When was the National Labour Relations Act (Wagner Act):
1935
What was the National Labour Relations Act (Wagner Act)?
The right of workers to form unions and to collectively bargain was guaranteed
What was the growth in union membership throughout the New Deal?
3.7 million in 1933 to 9 million in 1938 - as unions were established and sought to collectively bargain with employers
SWOC gained the right to collectively bargain with US Steel in 1937
When was the Fair Labour Standards Act?
1938
What was the Fair Labour Standards Act?
Created a minimum weekly wage for industrial workers of $25
What were ‘Alphabet Agencies’?
Provided work for millions of unemployed
To what extent was the New Deal an era of negative development for union and labour rights?
The National Recovery Administration (NRA) - membership of the scheme was voluntary and short-lived, the NRA was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1935
The National Labour Relations Act (Wagner Act, 1935) - did not cover all types of workers: agricultural workers did not have the same right to form unions or collectively bargain
Resistance from employers to the Wagner Act - J&L Steel opposed recognising the SWOC union leading to the Memorial Day Massacre in 1937 whereby 10 strikers were killed. Henry Ford refused to recognise the Union of Automobile Workers until 1941
New Deal legislation did little to improve the conditions of African American, Native American and female workers
Divisions within unions also remained and expanded - the CIO formed in 1936
Roosevelt’s aim in the New Deal was not to protect or strengthen labour/union rights, but to take steps to improve labour relations to help the economy recover
Limitations of the National Recovery Administration (NRA):
Membership of the scheme was voluntary
Short-lived - NRA was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1935
NRA was controversial, some attacked it as excessive state interference whilst others viewed it as too pro-business
Limitations of The National Labour Relations Act (Wagner Act, 1935):
Did not cover all types of workers: agricultural workers did not have the same right to form unions or collectively bargain
Appeased the Southern Democrats in Congress and ensure the Act could be passed
Resistance from employers to the Wagner Act - J&L Steel opposed recognising the SWOC union leading to the Memorial Day Massacre in 1937 whereby 10 strikers were killed.
Henry Ford refused to recognise the Union of Automobile Workers until 1941
When did the CIO form?
1936
To what extent was Black Power an era of positive development for union and labour rights?
Influence of Black Power brought improvements for African workers:
- Black Power shifted the focus from legal civil rights towards economic and social inequality e.g. the BPP’s ‘Ten Point Programme’
- May have pressurised Johnson to create social reforms that benefitted workers in the ‘Great Society’ e.g. Economic Opportunity Act 1964
- Nixon’s affirmative action can be seen as a response to Black Power and an attempt to reduce the appeal of their economic arguments, By 1972 affirmative action policies had been extended to over 300,000 firms
There is evidence that Black Power also had an impact on unions themselves:
- The Coalition of Black Trade Unionists (CBTU) was formed in 1972 on the principle that African-American workers were under-represented
Arguments the influence of Black Power brought improvements for African workers:
Black Power shifted the focus from legal civil rights towards economic and social inequality e.g. the BPP’s ‘Ten Point Programme’
May have pressurised Johnson to create social reforms that benefitted workers in the ‘Great Society’ e.g. Economic Opportunity Act 1964
Nixon’s affirmative action can be seen as a response to Black Power and an attempt to reduce the appeal of their economic arguments, By 1972 affirmative action policies had been extended to over 300,000 firms
There is evidence that Black Power also had an impact on unions themselves:
The Coalition of Black Trade Unionists (CBTU) was formed in 1972 on the principle that African-American workers were under-represented
To what extent was Black Power an era of negative development for union and labour rights?
Although Black Power brought attention to the poverty of African American workers (46% of all unemployed people in the US were Black in the early 1960s) this was only one part of its philosophy
Militancy of some Black Power groups deterred people from supporting change in these issues and particularly prevented many white and black workers from supporting the movement e.g. the AFL-CIO supported only the moderate civil rights campaigns
Association of Black Power with communism also put workers off supporting
Groups like the CBTU demonstrated a more assertive black identity but by discouraging mixed-race unions, Black Power weakened the strength of trade unions generally and continued internal divisions
In the case of car industry in 1968, only 15% of the workforce was the African-American so calls for the rejection of mixed-race unions and cooperation was impractical
Factors that influenced or shaped the development of labour and union rights:
The Strength of Unions
Changes in the Economy
Employer Attitudes
Federal Government Attitude
Public Attitude
Situation in 1865:
At the end of the American Civil War, union and labour rights were limited in places + did not exist in others
Workers could negotiate with their employers over pay, hours + conditions but employers were under no legal obligation to recognise the existence of labour unions
Small Craft Unions did exist + worked to defend the rights of their members. These were “closed-shop” unions meaning that only certain members would be allowed to join and that one union would dominate a union.
What are ‘closed-shop’ unions?
“closed-shop” unions meant that only certain members would be allowed to join and that one union would dominate a union.
When was the ‘Great Railroad Strike’?
1877
When was the ‘Sherman Anti-Trust Act’?
1890
What was the ‘Sherman Anti-Trust Act’?
Tried to prevent the growth of the monopolies but also outlawed any contracts that would stop trade, this would go on to be used against unions + strikes
Attitudes of Employers + the Government:
Sherman Anti-Trust Act - Tried to prevent the growth of the monopolies but also outlawed any contracts that would stop trade, this would go on to be used against unions + strikes
As was seen in the Homestead + Pullman Strikes of 1892 + 1894, the state + federal governments at times actively supported efforts of employers to put down strikes + were willing to use force to do this
Governments of the ‘Gilded Age’ followed Laissez Faire economic policies meaning that they attempted to leave bug businesses + industry to run itself to run itself free from federal intervention + union obstruction
Courts also routinely supported the rights of employers against workers or unions + from 1894, court injunctions were used to break strikes
Period after 1865 was one of unparalleled economic growth meaning that the fed gov had little interest in supporting the rights of labour + unions at the risk of slowing down economic growth
Impact of WW1:
Generally argued that during WW1, the position of workers improved in the USA.
American industry experienced a boom in demand as there was greater need to produce textiles, uniforms, steel and munitions.
Between 1914 and 1918, factory production in the US increased by 35%
Prices rose but wages increased by 20% meaning that workers’ standard of living remained high
Union membership increased from 2.7 million in 1916 to 5 million by 1920
Development of African American trade unions - Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
500 porters met in Harlem on 25th August 1925 + launched a campaign to form a union, led by A. Phillip Randolph
Randolph aimed to get formal recognition of the BSCP as a union + member of the AFL
Randolph was also a member of the Socialist Party of America, which was beginning to focus on the rights of black workers
Successes of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters:
By 1928, around half of the Pullman porters were members of the BSPC but it had still failed to gain recognition
Changes in the law in 1934 meant that the BSCP could now claim to represent Porters as the largest union + its right to do so was certified on 1st June 1935
BSCP signed its first collective bargaining agreement with the Pullman Company in 1937
Impact of WW2:
WW2 appears to be highpoint of labour/union rights
By 1945, unions had been recognised and their membership had soared: from 8.9 million in 1940 to 14.8 million in 1945
Labour shortages during the war meant that the Federal Government + employers had to be conciliatory to workers + even the Ford Motor Company recognised the Auto Workers Union in 1941
Workers seemed to have gained the upper-hand over their employers by 1945
When was the ‘Taft-Hartley Act’?
1947
What was the ‘Taft-Hartley Act?
Made major changes to the Wagner Act
Employers had the right to refrain from participating in union or mutual aid activities except that they could be required to become members in a union as a condition of employment
Defined six additional unfair labour practices, reflecting Congress’ perception that some union conduct also needed correction
Act was amended to protect employees’ rights from these unfair practices by unions
Prohibited Secondary boycotts, making it unlawful for a union that has a primary dispute with one employer to pressure a neutral employer to stop doing business with the first employer
Unions were prohibited from charging excessive dues or initiation fees, and from “featherbedding” or causing an employer to pay for work not performed
“Blue Collar”:
Factory Work
“White Collar”:
Managerial/office work
Technological changes after 1945:
Workers + unions were significantly affected by increasing mechanisation + automation in the economy
As blue-collar jobs began to be lost, there was an increase in white-collar employment as America’s service sectors - led to a decline in union membership
Less Militant Unions after 1945:
The CIO merged in 1955 with the AFL - brought 85% of union members into a single organisation: AFL-CIO
Merged union was much less militant than its predecessors + reflected the satisfaction of its members with higher wages, and average working week of 40h
Accepted need for greater cooperation + solidarity
When was the ‘Salad Bowl Strike’:
1970
Cesar Chavez + American Farmworkers:
Farmworkers had not benefitted from the gains that industrial workers had seen by 1960
Merger of the Agricultural Workers Organising Committee (AWOC) led by Cesar Chavez, in 1966 to become the Farmworkers Organising Committee - became Farm Workers Union in 1972
Chavez adopted a policy of non-violence + turned the struggle of farmworkers into a moral issue which won national sympathy
UFW would go on to achieve success by organising strikes + boycotts of large growers, winning higher wages for those working for lettuce + grape growers
When was Kennedy’s ‘New Frontier’?
1960-63
What was the general aim of the ‘New Frontier’ policy?
Aimed to eliminate, inequality, poverty and deprivation
What impact did the ‘New Frontier’ have on workers and unions?
There was an agricultural act to raise farmers incomes
Equal Pay Act 1963 - particularly significant for women
Anti-Poverty legislation was passed by Congress - included increased social congress security benefits + the minimum wage
Most comprehensive program to improve working conditions, jobs, improve welfare support
To what extent did the ‘New Frontier’ strengthen labour + union rights:
Most supportive since the New Deal
Kennedy was more successful in setting a tone than enacting the program as had limited time to enforce it
When was Johnson’s ‘Great Society’?
1963-68
What was the general aim of the ‘Great Society’?
To eliminate poverty + radical injustice
Built on the policies of the ‘New Frontier’
What impact did the ‘Great Society’ have on workers + unions?
Unemployment rate fell below 5% and by 1966 the number of families with incomes of $7,000 a year or more had reached 55%, compared with 22% in 1950
Generous welfare benefits
Fair Labour Standards Act was extended to 9.1 million additional workers
Labour force increased
Equal Opportunity Act 1964 - combat inequality
More protection of fringe benefits
Minimum wage regularly increased
Civil Rights Act 1964
To what extent did the ‘Great Society’ strengthen labour + union rights:
Johnson’s tax cut measure triggered what one historian described as “the greatest prosperity of the post war years”
Helped the most disadvantaged such as AA, women, unskilled workers + pensions
Wasn’t completed due to funds needed for Vietnam War
How significant was federal legislation in the 1960s in improving the rights of workers and unions?
More concerned with welfare + civil rights
Equal Pay Act + Civil Rights Act did improve employment rights
It was aimed at the most advantaged
Most significant program since the New Deal to combat poverty
Nixon and Affirmative Action:
To address discrimination against AA in the workplace, Nixon continued a Democrat policy of affirmative action
Policy aimed to improve the lives of AA and other minorities by discriminating in their favour (positive discrimination) - meant employers were required by law to ensure that a certain percentage of their workforce was made of black/ethnic minority workers - known as the quota system
Decline in organised labour: Technological changes
Technological changes in the economy shrunk the blue-collar workforce
Employers exploited the rise in skilled workers by introducing no-strike or non-union clauses into the contracts
Labour and Union relations appeared vulnerable to changes in political power
The Changing nature on the economy in the 1970s:
Automation of the economy continued meaning that it created an increasing need for skilled labour at the cost of ‘blue-collar’ labour
1970s = decade of economic stagnation + high inflation, driven by, among other things, high oil prices
By 1979, prices had risen by 13% + the real wages of semi-skilled + unskilled workers had fallen by as much as 80%
Unemployment had also increased
Many Americans attempted to ‘make the best of what they had’ rather than join unions to campaign for better wages
Growing number of women in the workplace + the second income they brought to families, also reduce the appeal of union action
The Changing nature of the workforce in the 1970s:
Drive to increase productivity, many large firms + industries concentrated their production into smaller units + relocated these to more remote areas, out of traditional union areas
Growth in the service industry in this period also reduced the power of unions
New wave of Asian immigration also affected unions - immigrants from China, Korea, Vietnam + India were in large part unskilled and willing to work for lower wages
Trend towards an increase in white-collar workers (30.5 million in 1960 to 50.5 million in 1980) also undermined unions as such workers less likely to join
Changing political attitudes the late 1970s:
Union membership declined in the 1970s + 80s
Reagan was openly opposed to unions believing them to be a barrier to the free-running of the economy
Reagan’s economic policies, known as ‘Reganomics’ focused on privatising state on services + industries, and on reducing government intervention in the economy - ideas weakened unions + the support they could expect to receive from the fed gov
Positive labour + union legislation in the 1970s:
Occupational Safety + Health Act of 1970 established health + safety regulations in the workplace
1977 - Jimmy Carter established the hourly minimum wage $2.65
When was the PATCO strike?
3rd August 1981
On 3rd August 1981 the Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organisation (PATCO) called for a strike based on the following demands:
A $10,000 wage increase
A shorter working week of 32 rather than 40 hours
Better retirement benefits
PATCO Strike:
3rd August 1981
Of the union’s 17,500 members, 13,000 went on strike
Walk out was designed to coincide with summer vacations to cause maximum disruption + gain maximum attention
Offer from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) had been on the table + the decision to strike broke a 1955 law banning government workers from striking
What was Reagan’s response to the PATCO strike:
Reagan responded by firing all of those striking PATCO members who had not returned to work after 48 hours + giving them lifelong employment bans
Reagan brought in short-term cover from the military + gained a reputation as a ‘union buster’
The PATCO strike had a lasting impact on union/labour relation in the USA:
Demonstrated the hostility of the fed gov + Republican party in particular
Public opinion was broadly on the side of Reagan + the strikers received little sympathy as their demands were seen as excessive + their tactics as aiming to hold the country to ransom
Divided the union movement as others unions attacked the actions of PATCO
Demonstrated that employers were increasingly willing to use ‘scab’ labour to undermine strikes - FAA brought in 3,000 supervisors to work in place of the striking members of PATCO
PATCO was destroyed and its leaders sent to prison for organising the strike
By 1992, membership of industrial unions had fallen dramatically - 27% of workers in 1970 to 12% in 1990
